Regional integration and the promotion of socio-economic development in Africa: an analysis through the lens of the Regional Economic Communities

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Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 - Attribution - International License REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND THE PROMOTION OF

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: AN

ANALYSIS THROUGH THE LENS OF THE REGIONAL

ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES

Vianney Yogo

To cite this version:

Vianney Yogo. REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND THE PROMOTION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOP-MENT IN AFRICA: AN ANALYSIS THROUGH THE LENS OF THE REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES. Humanities and Social Sciences. CENTRE D’ÉTUDES DIPLOMATIQUES ET STRATÉGIQUES, 2025. English. ⟨NNT : ⟩. ⟨tel-05089207⟩

PhD PROGRAM IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND DIPLOMACY Option: BUSINESS DIPLOMACY

Thesis written with a view to obtaining the degree of PhD in International Relations and Diplomacy

Defended on 6th February 2025

By:

YOGO VIANNEY

Master’s degree in Social Sciences and International Relations Option: Peace and Development Studies / Specialisation: International Cooperation and Sustainable Development (PUCA - Cameroon)

Under the direction of:

Professor Jean-David AVENEL

University Professor

JURY:

Professor Fouad NOHRA, Chairman of Jury

Doctor Amina TAÏBOUNI, Member of Jury

Doctor Serge BESANGER, Member of Jury

Professor Jean-David AVENEL, Supervisor

Academic Year 2023-2024

REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND THE PROMOTION OF

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: AN

ANALYSIS THROUGH THE LENS OF THE REGIONAL

ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES CONTENTS

I

CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................. I EPIGRAPH ................................................................................................................................................... II DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..................................................................................... V LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS AND MAPS.................................................................................................VII ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................................................XI RESUME...............................................................................................................................................................XII GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................12 II-RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES ..........................................................................................35 III-RESEARCH METHOD AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................36 PART ONE:PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION: A POST SECOND WORLD WAR APPROACH OF DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER I: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION ....................................................................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER II: THE PROCESS OF BUILDING REGIONAL INTEGRATION ...................................... 82 SECOND PART: REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESSES IN AFRICA BASED ON THE REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES: A MIXED DEVELOPMENT RECORD BETWEEN 1991 AND 2021............................................................................................................................................123 CHAPTER III: REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN AFRICA: A PAN-AFRICAN POLITICAL IDEAL IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA..........................................................................................................120 CHAPTER IV: AFRICA'S PRECARIOUS SITUATION FROM THE LATE 1950S TO THE EARLY 1990S............................................................................................................................................................164 CHAPTER V: REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES IN AFRICA: INSTRUMENTS FOR PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................................................................199 PART THREE: REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES IN AFRICAN REGIONAL INTEGRATION: PRIVILEGED INSTRUMENTS TO BE IMPROVED TO PROMOTE PEACE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................238 CHAPTER VI: CONTRIBUTION OF THE ABUJA TREATY TO ACCELERATING THE REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS AND PROMOTING SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA........240 CHAPTER VII: AFRICAN REGIONAL INTEGRATION: OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE ACCELERATION OF THE PROCESS AND PROMOTION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA................299 CHAPTER VIII: OPTIMISING THE REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS IN AFRICA: A NECESSITY FOR THE EFFECTIVE REALISATION OF THE AFRICAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY AND THE PROMOTION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT...............................................................................344 GENERAL CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................424 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES........................................................................................................428 APPENDICES..............................................................................................................................................447 TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................................................460

II

EPIGRAPH

« […] Nous n'avons pas eu le même passé, Vous et Moi, mais nous aurons le même avenir rigoureusement. L'ère des destinées singulières est révolue. […] Car nul ne peut plus vivre de la seule préservation de soi. »

Cheikh Hamidou KANE, l'Aventure Ambiguë, 1962.

III

DEDICATION

To my dear Mother, Ms Madeleine Dorothée NGO YOGO

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Without the blessing of the Eternal God Almighty, this work would never have come to fruition. I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to all those who have contributed to it, from near and far. So my thanks go to: - Professor Jean-David AVENEL, my thesis supervisor, who, with rigour and method, guided and encouraged me throughout the research and writing of this academic work;

• The Director General of HEIP-CEDS, Ms Céline CLAVERIE, the Director of Studies, Professor Fouad NOHRA, and all those in charge for having provided us with a study environment conducive to the acquisition of knowledge. I would also like to thank all the teachers, administrative and support staff; - All the people who made my research at the African Union a success: His Excellency Moussa FAKI MAHAMAT, Chairperson of the African Union Commission, the Head of Integration and Trade of the Commission, Dr Jean-Denis GABIKINI, and all the staff of the African Union Commission; - Ms Emilienne NGO YOGO and the entire family YOGO UM MESAC for making me the man I am today;

• My big brother Yann Pierrick YOGO, who always devoted himself to the success of my school and university background;

• My others brothers and sisters, who have encouraged me since the first day I enrolled in this PhD programme: Adèle, Larissa, Michaël, Charles-Auguste, Junior; - Ms Yvette TOUANGA and the entire family POUNGUE Mathias for their many forms of support;

• All my friends Ludovic, Gauthier, Annick, Franklen, Vanessa, Jacard, Ninette, Inès, Ange, Katia, Madillia, Ophélie, Serena, Cynthia for their sound advice; - The Ecopia management team, Mr Glenn MEROVIL, Ms Aude SERRANO and Mr Adrien NORMAND, who enabled me to immerse myself more deeply in sustainable development issues;

• My fellow members of the PhD batch of February 2021, for the moments of sharing and camaraderie.

The merits of this work are yours. I alone accept its limitations.

V

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADF: Agricultural Development Fund

AEC: African Economic Community

AfCFTA: African Continental Free Trade Area

AfDB: African Development Bank

APSA: African Peace and Security Architecture

ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASF: African Standby Force

AU-DREA; African Union Commission's Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture

AU: African Union

CAPP: Central African Power Pool

CDM: Continental Digital Market

CET: Common External Tariff

CM: Common Market

COMECON: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

COMESA: Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COPAX: Security Council in Central Africa

CPDAVC: Community Programme for the Development of Agricultural Value Chains

CTMP-CA: Consensus Transport Master Plan for Central Africa CU: Custom Union

CUSMA: Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement

DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo

EAC: Eastern African Community

EASBRIG: East African Standby Brigade

ECCAS: Economic Commission for Central African States ECOMOG: Economic Community of West African States Ceasefire Monitoring Group

ECOWAS: Economic Commission for West African States EEC: European Economic Community

EU: European Union

FOMAC: Central African Multinational Force

FTA: Free Trade Area

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GGC: Gulf of Guinea Commission

GGMU: Gulf of Guinea and Mediterranean Union GIS: Geographical Information System

VI

ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organisation

ICC: Interregional Coordination Centre

ICT: Information Communication and Technology

IGAD RAIP: IGAD-Regional Agricultural Investment Plan IGAD: Intergovernmental Authority for Development

LPA: Lagos Plan of Action

MARAC: Central African Early Warning System

MCP: Monetary Cooperation Programme

MERCOSUR: Southern Common Market

MIP: Minimum Integration Plan

OAU: Organisation of African Unity

OECD: Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development PIDA: Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa PLANELM: Planification Elements

REC: Regional Economic Community

REP: Regional Economic Programme

RERA: Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority

RI: Regional Integration

RIA: Regional Integration Agreement

RISDP: Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan RSFAD: Regional Special Fund for Agriculture and Development SADC: Southern African Development Community

SCD: Structural-Community Diplomacy

SDG: Sustainable Development Goals

SIPO: Strategic Indicative Plan of Organ

SME: Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

TFTC: Tripartite Free Trade Community

UMA: Arab Maghreb Union

UN: United Nations

UNECA: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNECLAC: United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean

UNIDO: United Nations Industrial Development Organisation USD: United States Dollar

USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

WAHO: West African Monetary Organisation

WTO: World Trade Organisation

VII

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: List of internationally recognised African countries. Appendix 2: Extract from the Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community

Appendix 3: List of the world's main integration agreements Appendix 4: List of coups d'état between 1991-2021

Appendix 5: List of conflicts in Africa between 1991-2021 Appendix 6: Integration movements of the five most representative RECs in the African sub-regions

Appendix 7: Stages of African regional integration

Appendix 8: Evolution of the African regional integration process Appendix 9: Structures of RECs in Africa

Appendix 10: Methodology for calculating the Africa Regional Integration Index (ARII)

Appendix 11: The sixteen (16) Africa Regional Integration Index (ARII) indicators

VIII

LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS AND MAPS

A. TABLES

Table 2: The five (5) stages in Bela Belassa's classification of the regional integration process

Table 4: Modalities of integration of the African Economic Community from 1994-2027

Table 5.1: Analysis of the specific features of the RECs recognised by the African Union

Table 5.2: Analysis of the specific features of the RECs contested by the African Union

Table 6: Overview of the implementation of APSA components within RECs in Africa

Table 7.1: The 10 best and 10 lowest performances in the development of transport infrastructure in Africa between 1991 and 2021 Table 7.2: Some examples of nationalist withdrawal within the various regional economic communities

Table 8.1: Potential improvements in integration performance in terms of structural transformation

Table 8.2: Potential improvements in integration performance in terms of the free movement of factors of production

Table 8.3: Potential improvements in integration performance in terms of harmonisation of national economic policies

Table 8.4: Potentially vast regional markets in Africa B. GRAPHS

Graph 6.1: The performance of the RECs in terms of production growth between 1991 2021 Graph 6.2: The performance of the RECs in terms of infrastructure development between 1991 and 2021

IX

Graph 6.3: The performance of the RECs in terms of the free movement of factors of production between 1991 and 2021

Graph 6.4: The performance of the RECs in promoting trade between 1991 and 2021

Graph 6.5: The performance of the RECs in establishing a financial and macroeconomic system between 1991 and 2021

Graph 6.6: Ten (10) priority sectors for REC programmes between 1991-2021 Graph 7.1: Conflicts and coups d'état in Africa between 1991 and 2021 Graph 7.2: The 10 highest and 10 lowest GDP/countries between 1991 and 2021 Graph 7.3: Performance score for free movement within the RECs Graph 7.4: Main non-african donors to RECs in Africa Graph 8: Dynamics of structural-community diplomacy in Africa C. MAPS

Map 7.1: Geographical breakdown of Africa

Map 7.2: Regional economic communities in Africa

Map 7.3: Foreign military presence in Africa

Map 8.1: The two new Regional Economic Communities in Africa Map 8.2: The nine main African road corridors to be built in Africa.

X

ABSTRACT

Adopted on 3 June 1991 in Abuja by the 51 Heads of State of the member states of the former OAU, the Abuja Treaty aims to create the African Economic Community and to accelerate, from the Regional Economic Communities (RECs), the process of regional integration and consequently the promotion of Africa's socio-economic development. However, more than three decades after the adoption of the Abuja Treaty and four years before its expiry in 2028, the implementation of the process of building the AEC and promoting the socio-economic development of the continent has fallen short of the initial projections in terms of the results achieved. It is from this observation that this study, entitled Regional Integration and the Promotion of Socio-Economic Development in Africa: An Analysis through the Lens of the Regional Economic Communities, was drawn up. The study is based on the question: Do Africa's current Regional Economic Communities help to promote regional integration and socio-economic development in Africa? Our study focuses on optimising the process of regional integration in Africa with a view to the effective establishment of the African Economic Community and the promotion of socio-economic development. Referring to the theoretical fields of structuralism and comparative advantage, we have established that, since the end of the Second World War, regional integration has been perceived by states as an instrument for preserving peace and promoting socio-economic development. It is for this reason that regional integration has been favoured on all continents and has made it possible to strengthen cooperation for peace and development between countries such as those in Africa, despite a number of identified drawbacks. To this end, we have successively highlighted the political-structural and macroeconomic constraints in our study. This research leads to the following conclusions: the political-structural reorganisation and macroeconomic reframing of the RECs, and the promotion of structural and community diplomacy within the RECs, can accelerate regional integration and the promotion of socio-economic development, and even sustainable development, in Africa.

Key words: AEC - Regional integration - Structuralist theory - Development - RECs - structural-community diplomacy.

XI

RÉSUMÉ

Adopté le 3 juin 1991 à Abuja par les 51 Chefs d’État des États membres de l’ex-OUA, le Traité d’Abuja vise à créer la Communauté Économique Africaine et accélérer, à partir des Communautés Économiques Régionales (CER), le processus d’intégration régionale et par conséquent, la promotion du développement socioéconomique de l’Afrique. Cependant, plus de trois décennies après l’adoption du Traité d’Abuja et à quatre ans de son échéance, soit 2028, l’on constate que la mise en œuvre des processus d’édification de la CEA et de promotion du développement socioéconomique du continent, est restée en deçà des projections initiales, au regard des résultats atteints. De ce constat découle cette étude intitulée, Intégration régionale et promotion du développement socioéconomique en Afrique : une analyse sous le prisme des Communautés Économiques Régionales. Laquelle a été articulée autour de la question : Les Communautés Économiques Régionales africaines actuelles concourent-elles à la promotion de l’intégration régionale et du développement socioéconomique en Afrique ? Notre étude porte à cet effet sur l’optimisation du processus d’intégration régionale en Afrique en vue de la réalisation effective de la Communauté Économique Africaine et la promotion du développement socioéconomique. En se référant aux champs théoriques du structuralisme et de l’avantage comparatif, nous avons établi que, l’intégration régionale depuis la fin de la deuxième guerre mondiale, a été perçue par les États comme un instrument de préservation de la paix et de promotion du développement socioéconomique. C’est fort de cela que l'intégration régionale a été privilégiée sur l’ensemble des continents, et a permis de renforcer la coopération pour la paix et le développement entre les pays comme ceux d’Afrique ; et ce, malgré quelques pesanteurs identifiées. A cet effet, nous avons successivement mis en exergue dans le cadre de notre étude, les pesanteurs politico-structurelles et macroéconomiques. Cette recherche aboutit aux conclusions suivantes : le réaménagement politico-structurel ainsi que le recadrage macroéconomique des CER et la promotion de la diplomatie structuro-communautaire au sein des CER, peuvent accélérer l’intégration régionale et la promotion du développement socioéconomique, voire du développement durable en Afrique. Mots clés : CEA - Intégration régionale - Théorie structuraliste – développement - CER-Diplomatie structuro-communautaire.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

I-BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION

Since the early 1960s, when most African countries gained their independence and the economic hegemony of the United States over the rest of the world was challenged, regional integration for development has been at the heart of the actions of African countries. Despite these actions by African governments, the situation in Africa has been characterised by numerous security crises; GNP in purchasing power parity per capita in Africa in 2007 was estimated at USD 2,417, more than 4 times lower than the world average of around USD 10,000; GDP in Africa in 2007 was estimated at USD 1,0921 , barely 2% of world GDP; more than 300 million Africans live on less than one dollar2 ; some twenty out of 55 African countries have a Gross National Income per capita of less than USD 1,500, and are among the poorest and most indebted countries in the world3 ; industrial production in Africa accounts for barely 1% of global industrial production4 ; Africa's share of international trade does not exceed 2.3% of global trade5 ; of the 32 countries in the world that had negative average annual growth between 1970 and 1998, 25 were African6 ; between 1979 and 1999, per capita GDP growth was negative in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, the 2007 UN-AIDS report revealed that 2/3 of the world's 33 million HIV-positive patients live in Africa, while the WHO report revealed that in 2005, 90% of the 900,000 malaria deaths recorded worldwide involved African nationals. Hundreds of the thousands of illegal African immigrants who try to reach the coasts of Western Europe every year die as a result of shipwrecks, due to the living conditions in these European countries, illustrating that these waves of illegal African immigrants constitute a veritable humanitarian disaster. What's more, according to UN estimates, Africa's population is set to reach 1.4 billion by 2025 and 2 billion by 2050. Africa needs to increase its current production tenfold by 2025 to meet the vital needs of this population, even though it has been unable to achieve this level of performance over the last thirty years. In view of this worrying situation, African countries saw the strengthening of regional integration as a privileged and peaceful instrument that could promote peace and security between African states, favourably modify unequal international exchanges with developed countries on the international scene, and promote self-centred and endogenous development, enabling them to become genuine partners on the international scene and consequently emerge from the marginalised status to which they have been confined as a result of free international trade. To speed up regional integration, the African Heads of State ratified the Treaty establishing the African Economic Community in Abuja on 3 June 1991, merging the cornerstones of the African Regional Economic Communities (RECs) by 2027. However, we cannot help noticing that several decades after the ratification of the Abuja Treaty, the plethora of African Regional Economic Communities has so far not helped to speed up regional integration and, moreover, the creation of the African Economic Community. This raises the problem of the configuration of Regional Economic Communities in the promotion of regional integration in Africa. Hence the title of our study: "Regional Economic Communities and regional integration in Africa". Our work focuses on the configuration of Regional Economic Communities by demonstrating why, three decades after the treaty was ratified by African governments, the current configuration of Regional Economic Communities has still not facilitated the promotion of regional integration in Africa. Our study also proposes solutions for creating major regional economic groupings and promoting regional integration for Africa's socio-economic development.

1 Daniel Ben Yahmed and Nicole Houstin – Atlas of Africa, Jaguar-2020 edition.

2 Ibid

3 Ibid

4 Ibid

5 Ibid

6 Emile Robert Perrin, Africa and Development, June 2001.

• DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Our work will be delimited in two ways. Firstly, we shall present the spatial dimension of our work, and secondly, we shall identify the temporal interval that will enable us to keep to our objective while avoiding the risk of talking about everything.

A. SPATIAL DELIMITATION

In spatial terms, the need to use data on the subject in question requires us to target priority collection areas. In the context of this work, our study focuses on the promotion of African regional integration for three (3) reasons. The first reason is that regional integration has been perceived since the day after African independence as an approach that would help to promote the socio-economic development of African countries. The second is based on the fact that nearly seven (7) decades after independence, Africa has still not managed to achieve its initial socio-economic development objectives despite the various regional integration initiatives. The third is based on the fact that since 3 June 1991, through the Abuja Treaty, African countries have adopted a new strategic orientation for their regional integration process.

B. TEMPORAL DELIMITATION

In terms of time, we will not deal solely with the issue of regional integration but will focus more specifically on regional integration in Africa during the period 1991-2021. The years 1991 and 2021 saw, respectively, the adoption of the Abuja Treaty and the entry into force of the AfCFTA (01/01/2021), which should facilitate, on the basis of protocols on trade in goods and services, the promotion of intra-African investment; competition policy, among others, the successive completion of the fourth stage of the regional integration process, namely the establishment of the African customs union, the fifth stage, namely the continental common market, and finally the sixth stage with the implementation of a continental economic and monetary union. In the same vein, between 1991 and 2021, almost all the stages in the process of accelerating African regional integration, i.e. 4-5/6, were to be implemented to ensure completion by 2028, the target date.

• REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Our literature review will be structured around three main themes: regional integration in the world, regional integration in Africa and Regional Economic Communities in Africa.

THEME 1: REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESSES IN THE WORLD According to Mohamed Ammar, regional integration is the process of not only overcoming, by common agreement, the physical, political and socio-economic barriers that divide countries from their neighbours, but also of collaborating in the management of shared resources and regional commons7. For Ammar, the problems of regional integration are numerous, including the lack of ownership and institutional capacities at regional and national level, the need to overcome the fragmentation of regional markets, insufficient economic diversification, ineffective interconnections, and the dynamics of integration, among others; and in turn, face many other types of historical, economic and political challenges. For this reason, the author stresses that determination and resources remain the essential factors for achieving these various regional and even global cooperation projects.

7 Ammar Mohamed, Les dynamiques d'intégration dans le monde, HAL Science, 2013.

However, we can note as a limitation that the author does not take into account the fact that a regional integration process can be instrumentalised in favour of richer countries if its planning and implementation are not accompanied by policies to compensate for and reduce inequalities. Hence the need to plan regional integration processes as instruments of cooperation for equitable socio-economic development. Although Frank André Gunder is a critic of the world system, for him, regional integration should be a tool, not a panacea8. Indeed, Frank Gunder sees regional integration as an opportunity for the countries of the South to strengthen their bargaining power vis-à-vis the centres and to diversify their economic relations. However, he warned against the risks of asymmetrical integration, which could reinforce disparities in development between countries and the domination of the most powerful countries within a region. This is why Immanuel Wallerstein warns of the limits and contradictions of regional integration9. In his view, regional integration can reinforce inequalities if it is not accompanied by redistribution and development policies. To this end, he recommends that regional integration should be seen as a means of both enhancing the attractiveness of countries in the same region and of competing with other states from outside the region. In the same vein, Dani Rodrik stresses that regional integration must be seen as an instrument for promoting socio-economic development and strengthening regional cooperation, while taking account of specific national characteristics and the needs of populations10. Aware of the socio-economic and political risks that regional integration can also entail for countries in the same region, including the accentuation of inequalities in development and the loss of sovereignty, Rodrik stresses the need to strike a balance between the benefits of regional integration and the need to preserve room for manoeuvre for individual states.

8 Gunder Frank André, Le développement du sous-développement, François Maspéro, Paris, 1980.

9 Wallerstein Immanuel, Comprendre le monde : Introduction à l'analyse des systèmes-monde, La Découverte, Paris, 2009.

10 Rodrik Dani, Nations et mondialisation : Les stratégies nationales de développement dans un monde globalisé, La Découverte, Paris, 2008.

For Franck Petiteville, since the late 1980s, the new regionalism is the most important wave of regionalism ever experienced in the world: every continent is now involved in one or several regional integration processes.11 . This study of the author aims assessing the real impact of these processes on the international System. Then he compares and build typologies of the main regional integration processes which have been created out of Europe, according to the sense of the integration, the quality of political cooperation between the member states, the degree of economic integration, and the degree of institutional and political integration. According to the author, the outcome of the analysis is that, excepted Europe, integration is rarely scheduled to go deep or has a real chance to go deep in the short term. Hence the ability of the new regionalism to shape the international system deeply remains quite limited.

However, if we can mention one shortcoming, it is not addressed in this work, the fact that it is on the basis of the specific characteristics and needs of the region that it will be possible to define the integration model best suited to the member countries. To this end, Paul Collier and the ohters highlight the importance of tailoring regional integration models to the unique characteristics and needs of each region to ensure the success and sustainability of integration12. They stress that adapting integration processes to local realities is essential to fostering the economic and social development of member countries. In the same vein, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum point out the importance of tailoring regional integration models to the unique characteristics and needs of each region to ensure that integration is effective and beneficial for all member countries13. Joseph Stiglitz in turn highlights the importance of designing regional integration processes that take into account the unique characteristics of each region and respond to the particular needs of member countries to ensure the success and sustainability of regional integration projects14.

11 Petiteville Franck, Processes of Regional Integration. Vectors for Remodeling the International System?? Etudes internationals, vol. 28, N°3, 1997.

12 Collier, P., Gunning J.W., O'Connell S.A. and Ndulu B.J, Harnessing Opportunities: How Africa Can Advance?, In Ndulu, O'Connell, Bates, Collier and Soludo, The Political Economy of Economic Growth in Africa, 1960-2000, Forthcoming Cambridge University Press., 2006.

THEME 2: REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS IN AFRICA

Simão L. Makiadi makes a critical analysis of the history and current state of economic and political integration on the African continent15. He notes that, despite the considerable efforts made in this area, regional integration does not yet seem to have produced the expected results. He begins by identifying the challenges faced by regional integration programmes in Africa, from their inception with the pan-African ideal to the present day. He also discusses the obstacles that Africa must overcome if it is to achieve the objectives of its various Regional Economic Communities (RECs). Makiadi also offers a glimpse of hope, saying that Africa is not doomed to despair like other continents, particularly those of the Third World.

However, if we can mention one shortcoming, it is not dealt with in this work: the fact that most of the time the projects financed are either projects with low development potential, or disconnected from local realities and the priority needs of the beneficiaries of the said projects. To this end, Esther Duflo and Abhijit Banerjee, through their work, demonstrate the importance of designing development projects based on empirical evidence and data16. They highlight that to have a real positive impact, it is essential to understand local needs and to design appropriate and effective interventions. Their approach highlights the importance of rigorous evaluation of development projects to ensure that they meet the priority needs of beneficiaries and generate significant results in terms of improving their living conditions. In the same vein, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum highlight the importance of considering the concrete needs of individuals and communities in order to design effective development policies and social interventions17. Their approach emphasises the development of people's capacities and the promotion of a vision of social justice that takes account of the diversity of human experience.

13 Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, The quality of life, Clarendon Press, 1993.

14 Stiglitz Joseph, Poverty, globalisation and growth: some insights into some of the statistical links, In Human Development Report 2003, UNDP, New York, 2003.

15 Makiadi Simão L, Regional Integration in Africa: A long-standing process... for what results?, Mulemba, 2016.

Luc Sindjoun and Pascal Vennesson note that since 1945, regional integration has been a significant aspect of international realities"18. However, the very nature of regional integration, its objectives, the methods used to implement it and its results are the subject of vigorous disagreement. To this end, they examine the rise of the Republic of South Africa, particularly since the abolition of the Apartheid regime in 1991, its impact on the distribution of power in Africa and its implications for regional integration. The authors first present the contributions and limitations of existing theories on regional integration and power, as well as the neorealist problematic that we are implementing; and then the distribution of power in the regional sub-system, a unipolar distribution marked by the capacity of the Republic of South Africa to structure regional integration. It should be emphasised, however, that this influence is relatively independent of the intentions and decisions of South African political decision-makers. The authors therefore conclude that the regional framework is also helping to integrate South Africa into the region: hence the main aspects of this process.

16 Duflo Esther and Banerjee Abhijit, Repenser la pauvreté, Seuil, 2012.

17 Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, The quality of life, Clarendon Press, 1993.

18 Sindjoun Luc and Vennesson Pascal, Unipolarity And Regional Integration: South Africa And The "African Renaissance", French Journal of Political Science, Vol. 50, No. 6, December 2000, pp. 915-940.

However, if we can mention one shortcoming, it is not addressed in this work, namely the fact that South Africa's ability to structure and stimulate the process of accelerating African regional integration, as a major African economic pool or potential driving force for regional integration and development, remains conditional on a certain number of prerequisites, such as the effective establishment of a free trade area that would facilitate the free movement of all factors of production from the Republic of South Africa to all the RECs to which it belongs and, more broadly, across the entire African continent. To this end, Thandika Mkandawire has highlighted in his work the importance of setting up a free trade area in South Africa to facilitate the movement of factors of production across the continent's Regional Economic Communities (RECs)19. He stresses that this step is crucial to promoting regional integration in Africa and strengthening South Africa's role as the driving force behind this regional integration. The author also stresses the need to create favourable conditions for greater economic cooperation between African countries in order to stimulate socio-economic development and promote inclusive growth on the continent. In the same vein, Carlos Lopes shares the view that South Africa's ability to stimulate the process of regional integration within the RECs to which it belongs, and on the African continent as a whole, is linked to essential prerequisites, notably the establishment of a free trade area to encourage the free movement of factors of production20. Trudi Hartzenberg corroborated these positions in her work, noting the importance of setting up a free trade area in South Africa to facilitate the movement of factors of production across the continent's Regional Economic Communities (RECs)21. She also stressed that this step is crucial to promoting economic and regional integration in Africa and strengthening South Africa's role as the driving force behind African regional integration. In her view, this justifies the need to create conditions conducive to greater economic cooperation between African countries in order to stimulate socio-economic development and promote sustainable growth on the continent.

19 Mkandawire Thandika, Thinking about Developmental States in Africa, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 2001.

According to the author, Vera Songwe, regional economic integration around the world is accelerating growth and development by bringing a range of benefits linked to improved political cooperation, increased intra-regional trade and job creation22. Regions that are more integrated have proved capable of faster growth and have demonstrated greater resilience in times of global economic downturn. As the global economy struggles to return to the high growth levels of a decade ago, stimulating domestic and regional growth has become the main strategic solution for many countries and regions. Songwe believes that countries such as China and India are forging more links with their neighbours, and even in the European Union, intra-regional trade is returning to pre-financial crisis levels. In Africa, Morocco and South Africa are also vigorously adopting regional trade strategies, while Europe remains Africa's main export market. Africa's trade with Europe's Atlantic nations is shrinking at a time when Africa is looking to intensify its trade relations with itself. However, as Africa integrates into global value chains, trade with Europe should be expected to continue to grow, as competition with Africa's other Atlantic neighbours to the south of the US is likely to increase. However, one limitation is that the author did not specify the need to emphasise the fact that effective solutions for combating poverty must emerge from the populations concerned themselves. To this end, Paulo Freire, in his work23, which highlights the importance of individual emancipation through education and the need to take account of the perspectives and needs of marginalised populations in development processes, stresses the importance of the active participation of communities in identifying their needs and designing development projects that correspond to their realities. It highlights the idea that effective solutions to poverty must emerge from the people themselves. Elinor Ostrom in highlighting the importance of community participation in the design and implementation of development projects that meet their real needs, puts forward the idea that sustainable solutions to poverty must emerge from the beneficiary populations themselves24. This means that development projects must be designed in collaboration with local communities, taking into account their specific knowledge, needs and perspectives to ensure real effectiveness and sustainability in the various poverty reduction initiatives. Ochozias A. Gbaguidi analyses the integration processes in Africa and assesses the progress made since independence25. Based on the methodology proposed by Park, the author has derived an overall regional development index

20 Lopes Carlos, Africa in Transformation: Economic development in the age of doubt, Palgrave MacMillan Cham, 2019.

21 Hartzenberg Trudi, The tripartite Free Trade Area: Towards a new African integration paradigm?, Tralac (Trade Law Centre), 2012.

22 Songwe Vera, Economic Integration in Africa: An Ongoing Process, Policy Brief, 2016. for Africa's main regional economic communities. He found not only that, on the whole, progress has not matched the hopes placed in the integration mechanisms, but also noted that by focusing on four main dimensions (political, social, technological, economic) of development, it can be concluded that North Africa is far from being the least integrated region on the continent, even if the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) mechanism is well behind the continental objectives. However, one limitation is that the author does not mention that the conflicts of various kinds that have characterised the continent during this period can largely explain the delay in the overall assessment of the regional integration process. This is the case, for example, with Morocco's crisis over the Western Sahara, which was sometimes exacerbated across the North African region by the recognition of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Republic by certain countries in other regions, such as South Africa, Mali, Angola and Ethiopia, among others, and the majority of countries bordering North Africa, such as Algeria, Mauritania and Libya. In this regard, Amin Maalouf has observed that historical and contemporary conflicts, as well as political rivalries and identity crises, can also influence relations between peoples, states and, consequently, the various regional integration initiatives in North Africa and, more broadly, within African continental institutions26. This is why her analyses of identities and historical dynamics have provided a useful framework for understanding how regional conflicts, such as that over Western Sahara, can affect regional integration processes both in the Maghreb region and on the African continent as a whole. In the same vein, Khadija Mohsen-Finan27 points out that political rivalries and territorial conflicts, particularly between Morocco and Algeria, as well as the recognition of the self-proclaimed Saharawi Republic by certain countries, have

23 Freire Paulo, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Argon, 2021,

24 Ostrom Elinor, Gouvernance des biens communs : l'évolution des institutions pour l'action collective, De Boeck, 2010.

25 Ochozias A. Gbaguidi, Fifty Years of Regional Integration in Africa: A Global Assessment, Financial Techniques and Development 2013/2 (No. 111), pages 47 to 62. contributed to slowing down regional integration in Africa and particularly in North Africa. He highlighted the impact of these conflicts on regional cooperation within the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) and other community initiatives for socio-economic development in the region.

26 Maalouf Amin, Les identités meurtrières, Babe, 2001

27 Mohsen-Finan Khadija, Vers l'autonomie du Sahara occidental, le Monde diplomatique, 2009.

For Papa Lafatime Sène, regional integration is now at the heart of development concerns in Africa28. To achieve this, it is important to strengthen the organisations in charge of this project. In less than half a century of legal existence as sovereign states, African states have made considerable progress towards regional integration. Some important objectives have been achieved, notably the creation of free trade areas in most of the regional economic communities. Some RECs, which are more advanced than others, have been able to establish the free movement of people and a common external tariff (ECOWAS). According to the author, this reveals the fact that regional integration is one of the most credible strategies for solving the development problems facing Africa, despite the shortcomings in terms of resources and other economic aspects of each country. Such an objective will therefore require, according to the author, a thorough review of the results achieved in this field at national, regional and continental level, and a solid institutional framework. It is in this context that the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has reiterated and reinforced the role of regional integration in boosting growth and development in Africa. Moreover, the RECs have been given a major role in the implementation of the partnership. While considerable efforts have been made to achieve economic convergence and set up the African Economic Community and the African Union, the author believes that there are still shortcomings that need to be addressed. He also notes that the volume of intra-African trade remains low to date, representing only 10% of the total volume of trade in Africa. The high cost of economic activities, particularly transport, and the inadequacy of regional trade are also barriers to trade. The author concludes by saying that the main players in regional integration, the RECs, have still not been given the supranational powers required to ensure that collective decisions are implemented and that common policies converge. They must therefore be rationalised and empowered to act on behalf of their member states. The financing of regional integration is therefore another fundamental constraint, reflected in the inadequate financial resources of the RECs and integration programmes.

28 Papa Lafatime Sène 's dissertation on integration initiatives in Africa, Université Pierre Mendès France Grenoble II - Master of Public and European International Law 2005.

However, we can only deplore the fact that the author has not identified ways of stimulating the acceleration of regional integration at regional and continental level, and of curbing nationalist withdrawal. Such nationalism is a real obstacle to the promotion of regional integration and the socio-economic development of member countries, due to mistrust on both sides. To this end, Robert Keohane's work29 argues that, by fostering mistrust and hindering regional and continental cooperation, nationalist withdrawal constitutes a significant obstacle to regional integration in Africa, particularly within its Regional Economic Communities. These nationalistic attitudes also compromise the establishment of effective regional institutions, the free movement of goods and people, and the collective resolution of regional concerns. In the same vein, Kabanda Mashinsi J and Makolo Makopo C for their part, stress that nationalist withdrawal movements are detrimental to regional integration, particularly within African Regional Economic Communities30. These excessive nationalist tendencies, which favour national interests to the detriment of regional cooperation and community integration initiatives, have often hindered the process of accelerating regional integration on the African continent and the economic and social development of African countries.

29 Keohane R. After hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, 1984.

30 Kabanda Mashinsi J and Makolo Makopo C, L’intégration régionale africaine et ses problèmes, International Journal of Social Sciences and Scientific Studies, 2022.

THEME 3: REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES IN AFRICA

Gislain Stéphane Gandjon Fankem examines the impact of the proliferation of regional economic communities on internal trade in Central Africa, as well as the trade creation and diversion effects of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)31. Based on the gravity model and recent panel estimation techniques, it explains that the proliferation of Regional Economic Communities is reducing trade between Central African countries. In addition, they reveal that no trade has been created in ECCAS as a result of the proliferation of integration agreements. As a result, the proliferation seems to be reinforcing the diversion of trade within ECCAS.

However, if we can mention one shortcoming, it is not addressed in this work, the fact that the proliferation of RECs in Central Africa and the multiple memberships of Central African countries in several RECs such as ECCAS affect both the ability of these countries to make multifaceted contributions to the organisations to which they belong, community coordination and the effectiveness of regional integration initiatives within the countries of ECCAS and, more broadly, Central Africa. Thierry Amougou and Martine Ngo Nyemb argue that the proliferation of Regional Economic Communities in Central Africa has had an impact on intra-community trade, particularly for small and landlocked countries32. This has led to challenges such as fragmented trade policies, non-tariff barriers and higher logistical costs, hampering trade within the region. They also noted that landlocked countries are more sensitive to these barriers, which limits their access to regional and international markets, thus impacting on their economic and social development. In the same vein, the proliferation of Regional Economic Communities in Central Africa has, according to Jean-Emmanuel Pondi, complicated trade within the region by creating obstacles such as disjointed trade policies within the region, non-tariff barriers and onerous logistical costs, especially for countries with low economic potential33. These challenges have not only hampered local trade, but have also had an impact on the process of regional integration on the African continent.

31 Gandjon Fankem Gislain Stéphane, Does the proliferation of regional economic communities constitute a barrier to trade for Central African countries?, Region et Developpement, LEAD, Universite du Sud - Toulon Var, vol. 45, pages 59-78.

According to François Kabuya Kalala and Tshiunza Mbiye, regional integration and the creation of the African common market have been the vision of many African leaders since the early years of independence34. Despite some gains, there are still a number of challenges facing the integration process. Even though the African Union only recognizes eight regional economic communities (RECs), the continent currently has fourteen inter-governmental organizations working on regional integration issues. Overlapping memberships in RECs create unhealthy multiplication and duplication of efforts and misuse of scarce resources. Then the author thinks it is not only interested to find a rational explanation for the fact that the DRC belongs to four different regional groupings, but also in reflecting on a realistic scheme of regional economic integration for this Central African country.

32 Amougou Thierry and Ngo Nyemb Martine, Quels marchés pour quel développement en Afrique subsaharienne?, Revue interventions économiques, 2020.

33 Pondi Jean-Emmanuel, L'intégration régionale en Afrique : Aspects politiques et économiques, in Conférences académiques de l’Ecole Nationale d’Administration et de Magistrature (ENAM), Yaoundé, 2001.

34 Kabuya Kalala François and Mbiye Tshiunza, Regional Economic Communities: What Integration Strategy For The DRC, L'afrique Des Grands Lacs, Yearbook 2009-2010.

However, we can mention as a limitation the fact that the author, in highlighting the aspect linked to endogeneity, does not specify that the DRC's membership of several RECs, which sometimes do not pursue the same priorities, generally affects the country's ability to work effectively, at national, regional and continental level, to ensure the coherence of Community regional integration policies in Central and Southern Africa, and more broadly to accelerate the continental process of African regional integration. To this end, Jean-Emmanuel Pondi points out that the DRC's membership of several Regional Economic Communities with sometimes contradictory objectives and generally divergent priorities, for example, compromises its effectiveness in coordinating the consistency of regional integration policies within the various RECs to which it belongs and, more broadly, the overall process of regional integration on the African continent35. Abdoulaye Diop, for his part, shows that the DRC's multi-membership of several RECs, such as the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL), the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), complicates the coordination and implementation of EU regional integration policies36. It also stresses that this situation, which leads to overlapping and conflicting priorities, weakens the DRC's efforts to contribute not only to its own socio-economic development and to the achievement of effective and coherent regional integration within the RECs to which it belongs, but above all to the overall process of regional integration on the African continent.

35 Pondi Jean-Emmanuel, Pondi Jean-Emmanuel, L’évolution de l’idéal panafricain sur le continent depuis 1963, In Kamto Maurice, Pondi Jean-Emmanuel et Zang Laurent, L’OUA : Rétrospective et perspectives africaines, Paris, Economica, 1990, P.117-133.

36 Bassou Abdelhak, Architecture Africaine de Paix et Sécurité : Pertinence dans la conception et difficultés dans les réalisations, OCP Policy Center, 2017.

While most African countries are celebrating 50 years of national independence, the promotion of a unitý of the continent has remained topicaĺ over time. For Amandine Gnanguenon, the African Union (AU), which seized the legacy of pan-Africanism in 2002, has attempted to prove itself by tackling the many challenges on which the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) had failed37. Indeed, with the creation of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), the main challenge remained the redefinition of cooperation between the AU and the Regional Economic Communities (RECs). Traditionally recognised as mere pillars of the African Economic Community (AEC), the RECs have become fully-fledged actors in development as well as peace and security. Starting from the historical links and the legal framework defining cooperation between the OAU (AU) and the RECs, the author has re-read the evolution of the relationship between the regional and continental levels through a political prism. However, we can note as a limitation the fact that the process of effective implementation of the APSA remains unfortunately and significantly confronted with difficulties of financial resources and real political commitment of African governments to contribute to the effective completion of the APSA in their respective regions. To this end, Yayew Genet Chekol in analysing these two obstacles encountered in guaranteeing the full realisation of the APSA, points to the need for increased mobilisation of financial resources and real political commitment from African governments to ensure the success of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA)38. It stresses that without these two essential elements, among others, the effective implementation and efficiency of the APSA on the continent could be compromised, thus impacting on African regional security and stability. Other studies, such as those by Taisier Ali and Robert Matthews, have also highlighted the challenges linked to financial resources and the political commitment of African governments to the implementation of the APSA 39. In this respect, the work of Taisier Ali and Robert Matthews provide an in-depth analysis of these specific challenges, highlighting direct implications such as insufficient budgets allocated to the APSA, which limit its ability to carry out effective peacekeeping operations, and a lack of concrete support for peace and security initiatives, which slow down the implementation of the measures set out in the APSA. Overall, this hampers the ability of the APSA to achieve its objectives of promoting regional peace and security on the African continent. According to Ibtissam Bahmane, all this overlapping of countries disrupts the economic equilibrium of the RECs40.. In fact, each REC has its own programmes and objectives, which move back and forth between two or more RECs because of the lack of coordination and harmonisation. The communities must therefore react to achieve regional integration. The author believes that the only possible approach is to rationalise the RECs. The next step will be to anchor the eight RECs in two supra-regional blocs, sharing North and West Africa on the one hand and South and East Africa on the other. Secondly, to harmonise the RECs by mission, with organisational support for the assignment of missions for

37 Gnanguenon Amandine, The role of Regional Economic Communities in the implementation of the African Peace and Security Architecture, Mindef France, October 2010. each grouping. As a first block, the author presents a tripartite grouping made up of COMESA, SADC and EAC, with a request from IGAD to join the new formation. The second bloc is made up of ECCAS and ECOWAS, following a series of regional cooperation agreements signed in 2013: on the fight against human trafficking, maritime security, etc., suggesting a good start for a new coalition. He therefore believes that these two poles will engage in joint actions to establish a common market́ to facilitate integration in its final stage. And to harmonise integration policies, the RECs will each be assigned very specific missions of free movement, free trade area, communication policies, monetary harmonisation among others. In conclusion, for the author, the overhaul of the two poles will put the work of the communities into perspective and open up prospects for coordination between African entities with an interest in joining forces and coordinating their development projects, so as to make Africa a single voice on the international stage.

38 Chekol Yayew Genet, Major successes and challenges of African Peace and Security Architecture, International Journal of Political Science, Vol 5, 2019.

39 Taisier Ali and Matthews Robert, Durable Peace: challenges for peacebuilding in Africa, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2004.

40 Bahmane Ibtissam, Regional Economic Communities in Africa (Overlapping of African countries through their membership in several RECs), 6th International Conference on Economics and Management of Networks 21-23 November 2013, Agadir - Morocco.

However, we can note as a limitation the fact that the socio-economic imbalance caused by the overlapping of the RECs and the membership of African countries to several RECs also constitute a major difficulty in mobilising substantial financial resources from member countries for the implementation of community projects, due to their multiple obligations within different RECs. Fantu Cheru considers that the overlap between the RECs and the multiple memberships of African countries are significant obstacles to the mobilisation of the financial resources needed to carry out effective community projects41. For this reason, he points out that multiple membership of different RECs complicates the coordination of community policies and compliance with divergent rules and obligations, making it difficult for countries that are members of several RECs to implement regional projects coherently. Cheru also notes that this situation leads to difficulties in mobilising contributions from these countries, which generally find themselves obliged to divide their limited resources between several organisations; this dilutes the consistency of funding mobilised within the RECs and makes it more difficult to finance ambitious Community projects. Cheru also mentions that sometimes the priorities of the different RECs conflict, creating dilemmas for member countries who have to decide which initiatives to support first. This leads to significant delays and inefficiencies in project implementation and raises other issues such as duplication of effort and administrative structures, additional costs and inefficient use of resources. Following on from these observations, S. Karingi and S. Mevel for their part, highlight the institutional complexity caused by the multiplication of RECs and the dual or even multiple membership of African countries in several RECs, which constitute major obstacles to the effective mobilisation of financial resources and the alignment of development priorities42. Karingi and Mevel also point out that the simultaneous participation of African countries in several RECs complicates the mobilisation of financial resources because these countries have to organise their limited resources between various obligations, which weakens their ability to adequately finance the projects of each organisation. Karingi and Mevel also highlight the difficulties of coordination between the various RECs, which have often led to incoherent development policies and strategies and are detrimental to the regional integration processes within the various RECs to which they belong and on the continent as a whole.

41 Cheru Fantu, African Renaissance: Roadmaps to the challenges of globalization, Zed Books, 2002.

42Karingi Stephen and Mevel Simon, Deepening Regional Integration in Africa: A computable general equilibrium Assessment of the establishment of a continental Free Trade Area followed by a Continental Customs Union, Selected paper for presentation at the 7th African Economic Conference, Kigali, Rwanda, 30 October- 2 November 2012.

Septime Martin takes as his starting point the observation that the process of regional economic integration, based on the RECs adopted within the framework of NEPAD, is one of the means of developing the continent, which is suffering from extensive balkanisation43. A re-reading of economic theories on the factors that determine sustainable growth reveals that physical infrastructure is a determining factor, but not a sufficient one. As a result, the role of high-level human capital, technological innovation, research and regional financial integration within an appropriate institutional framework also appears to be decisive. Similarly, the decisive role played by public authorities in creating sustainable foundations for economic growth has been highlighted by these theories. This is why it seems necessary to define the most appropriate approaches that can energise the RECs and make them more flexible and effective, so that they can contribute to accelerating the continent's development and achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to the author, the African Development Bank has a keý advocacy role to play in reaffirming the political wilĺ of states to integrate and delegate certain powers to the RECs in terms of ensuring coherence and coordination of regional programmes with national programmes. It must also act as a lever to make available to the RECs the financial resources needed to achieve this objective. The RECs themselves must in turn, on the basis of realistic action plans and operational programmes, demonstrate efficiency in the use of resources and produce concrete results conducive to economic integration and in line with national programmes. It would therefore seem important for the AfDB, as a continental development institution, to provide more sustained support for the regional integration process in Africa. However, the author does not fail to point out that some of the proposed measures are being implemented, although much remains to be done to ensure that the AfDB takes the lead in this process of regional integration in Africa. Consequently, the author concludes that by defining its regional integration strategy, reviewing its operational and financial instruments for intervention in the RECs and judiciously mobilizing its own resources or those transferred to it, the previously defined strategic thrusts can be implemented and transformed into realitý. However, one limitation is the fact that the plethora of RECs set up to support the integration process, with, among other consequences, the multiple memberships of States in several RECs, generally hampers the coherence and coordination of Community initiatives for regional integration and economic and social development in Africa, such as the training of high-level human capital employed within the RECs and the promotion of research and technological innovation, among others. This situation also affects the effective use of available financial resources in an African context characterised by insufficient financial resources at both regional and continental levels, despite financial support from multilateral banks such as GBAD. In this regard, Pierre Guislain has highlighted that the multiplication of RECs, with the multiple memberships of member states, considerably complicates the coordination and coherence of regional integration initiatives44. This constantly leads to a dispersal of Community initiatives and different resources (material, human and financial); and significantly affects the effectiveness of policies throughout their maturation and implementation. In raising the need to develop appropriate human capital to achieve the aspirations of the various RECs, Guislain shows that the context that characterises Africa, and particularly its RECs, with regard to the inadequacy of financial resources, is further accentuated by the proliferation of RECs, despite the financial support of

43 Martin Septime, Regional Economic Communities within NEPAD: What prospects for sustainable economic and social development in Africa, October 2020. bilateral and multilateral financial partners such as the EU, the African Development Bank Group and the World Bank Group, among others. This is why Carlos Lopes, following on from this observation, advocates a rationalisation and harmonisation of regional structures to maximise the benefits of regional integration in Africa and improve the coordination, coherence and effectiveness of community initiatives for integration and the promotion of economic and social development throughout the African continent45.

44 Guislain Pierre, Connecting Sub-Saharan Africa: A World Bank Group Strategy for Information and Communication Technology Sector Development, World Bank Publications, 2015.

Mamadou Ramdé conducts a case study of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)46. As part of this study, he analyses the shortcomings of West African international regional integration and their implications. In his view, analysing the difficulties in the ECOWAS integration process requires a new approach that will enable the sources of the community's stalemate to be identified more realistically. He also discusses the political and socio-economic development problems facing African countries in general, and the West African region in particular, which can only be resolved through integration. An analysis of the shortcomings leads him to conclude that the stalemate in ECOWAS is linked to two sets of explanatory variables. The first group concerns variables endogenous to the integration process itself. On the one hand, these include factors linked to the dynamics of the organisation's emergence (sociogenesis). On the other hand, the blockage is attributable to the crisis of the Community institutions. For the author, the second group refers to the constraining factors exogenous to the process, which are the lack of democracy and ecological problems. Together, these variables are significantly hindering West African integration.

45 Lopes Carlos, The role of big data in Africa’s regional integration, International Trade Forum, 2015.

46 Mamadou Ramdé's dissertation on Les limites de l'intégration régionale internationale le cas de la Communauté Économique des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ECOWAS)46 , submitted to the Faculté́ des études supérieures with a view to obtaining the degree of M. Sc. in political science, September (2003)

However, we can mention as a limitation the fact that the difficulties linked to the lack of qualified personnel for the maturation and realisation of West African integration initiatives hinder, despite the political will of governments, the promotion of regional integration in the sub-region and the socio-economic development of its member countries. To this end, John Igue analyses the obstacles facing African countries, and specifically West African countries, in terms of qualified human resources47. He highlights the fact that these difficulties hamper the effective implementation of regional integration projects, even when governments show the political will to promote integration and foster the region's socio-economic development. He points out that community integration initiatives require specific technical and administrative skills that several RECs, such as those in West Africa, do not sufficiently possess. This he explains in part by the phenomenon of the brain drain from their home regions for better opportunities elsewhere, amplifying the shortage of qualified staff and the administrative and technical difficulties involved in planning and implementing community projects effectively. Following on from these developments, Theodore Bala examines the institutional and human challenges facing the region. She highlights the gaps in human resources and the need to improve skills and training to support integration initiatives48. A situation that Bala attempts to elucidate by pointing out that the public sector, which is often responsible for implementing integration initiatives, has difficulty attracting and retaining talent when faced with the private sector and opportunities abroad. She also illustrates this with the fact that education and vocational training programmes are generally not adapted to the specific needs of regional integration projects, creating a gap between the skills available and those required to effectively manage complex community projects. Sophie Chauvin also puts forward recommendations for overcoming these challenges, including reforming education systems, strengthening institutions and creating partnerships with international organisations for training and skills development.

47 Igue John, Défis et perspectives de l'intégration en Afrique de l'Ouest, In N’galadjo Bamba and al, Sortir du sous-développement : quelles nouvelles pistes pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ? Aspects historiques, institution et integration régionale, L’Harmattan, 2012.

48 Bala Theodore, The challenges and prospects for regional and economic integration in west Africa, Asian Social Science, 2017

II-RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A-RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1- MAIN QUESTION

Do the current African Regional Economic Communities help to promote regional integration and socio-economic development in Africa?

2- SECONDARY ISSUES

• Is the structural delimitation of Regional Economic Communities helping to speed up the regional integration of African countries? - Does the macroeconomic configuration of the Regional Economic Communities facilitate socio-economic development in Africa?

B-RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

1- MAIN HYPOTHESIS

Regional Economic Communities can contribute to regional integration and socio-economic development in Africa if adjustments are made to their respective organisations.

2- SECONDARY HYPOTHESES

• The geographical size of Regional Economic Communities can help speed up regional integration in Africa if member countries work to rationalise existing communities.

• The macroeconomic configuration of the Regional Economic Communities can facilitate Africa's socio-economic development if their member countries work towards convergence of their macroeconomic policies.

III-RESEARCH METHOD AND METHODOLOGY

A-RESEARCH METHOD

As part of our research, we used documentary research to collect and analyse data.

The documentary research enabled us to familiarise ourselves with the field of our research, as the issues of regional integration, economic integration and the African Regional Economic Communities arouse a great deal of interest and writing. The reports, articles and dissertations will therefore have been invaluable additions to our work. The documentary research will also have enabled us to familiarise ourselves with the Abuja Treaty, to understand the situation of regional integration in Africa, particularly through the organisation of its various existing regional economic communities, and the role of government institutions in the process of regional integration in Africa.

B-THEORIES USED

In order to confirm or refute our hypotheses, we used theoretical tools based on structuralist theory and the comparative advantage approach.

The structuralist theory49 in International Relations offers a new way of looking at some of the situations that have actually been observed in terms of regional integration. It takes up the major lessons that influence integration processes in the Third World, and develops them from a sociological angle, focusing on the analysis of social actors. Structuralist theory thus identifies the determining factors, whether endogenous or exogenous; economic, social or political; short-, medium-or long-term, for the success or failure of integration processes in developing regions such as Africa. Ultimately, structuralist theory, through its methodological approach, perceives regional integration as a means likely not only to trigger a process of sustained and sustainable growth of the African economy, but also to strengthen peace between African states, among other things. In the light of the above, we will use this theory to analyse the process of regional integration in Africa, through its regional economic communities. This analysis will consist in turn, after showing the configuration of the various regional economic communities, in presenting the contribution of the regional economic communities in the promotion of regional integration in Africa, in identifying the constraints linked to the RECs which hinder the integration process and in setting out possible solutions likely to improve the actions carried out in the regional integration process, so as to boost socio-economic development and strengthen peace in Africa.

We will also use David Ricardo's comparative advantage approach50 which is part of international economics. David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage arose from the inadequacies of Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation51 , he demonstrated that even in the absence of absolute advantages, it is still in a country's interest to specialise and trade with another country. This country gains by specialising in the production of goods for which its comparative advantage is the highest, i.e. whose relative costs are the lowest, and by trading the goods that it does not produce. As a result, African countries would do well to specialise not only to facilitate the creation of the African Economic Community, but also to increase Africa's industrial production, which has so far remained marginal on a global scale. Given this fact, we are interested in Africa's economic situation, to see which African countries have the best comparative advantages in terms of Africa's industrial production and trade within the existing regional economic communities as well as with the rest of the world. This enabled us to highlight the economic disparities that exist between the various existing RECs. These disparities hinder the process of regional integration in Africa, and consequently the promotion of socio-economic development and peace in the African region.

49 Initiated in 1979 in the United States by Kenneth Waltz, International theory of politics. The theory is concerned with the social actors in international relations.

50 This theory corrects Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. This said that a country would benefit from specialising in the production of goods for which it has an absolute advantage in order to participate significantly in trade.

51 First published in 1817.

PART ONE: PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION: A POST SECOND WORLD WAR APPROACH OF DEVELOPMENT

In this first part, we present in two (2) chapters, the promotion of regional integration as a post-World War II development strategy. Specifically, we will briefly present the conceptual and theoretical framework of regional integration (Chapter 1) and describe the processes of regional integration in their entirety (Chapter 2).

INTRODUCTION TO PART ONE

Favoured in the aftermath of the Second World War, the promotion of regional integration within the various regions of the world was seen by States as an approach not only to preserving international peace and security but also to achieving economic and social development. To this end, in order to guarantee the effectiveness of the promotion of regional integration, countries, each within its own region and in close collaboration with the scientific community, have defined a structural framework based on several factors, in particular the characterisation of the different types of regional integration, its modalities and principles, as well as the processes involved in achieving regional integration. After 1945, the regions structured their respective regional integration processes around economic or political approaches. It is with this in mind that we have observed that the countries of the majority of regions have, like the European countries, favoured regional integration based on an economic approach. On the other hand, some countries, such as those in Africa, opted for a political approach to regional integration as soon as they became independent.

CHAPTER I: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

The end of the Second World War and the challenge to a predominant world order, led by the United States, led to the formation of economic and political blocs, not only to rebuild the ravaged European continent and consolidate alliances in the aftermath of the Second World War, but also to promote regional integration in the world. This observation highlights a concern of scientists: what are the conceptual and theoretical frameworks that structure the understanding of the notion of regional integration? In order to answer this question, we will organise the chapter along several main lines. First, we will present a general overview of the concept of regional integration (I) and then we will present the typology of approaches and the motivations for regional integration (II).

I-GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE CONCEPT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

Broadly speaking, regional integration refers to a process of strengthening interconnectivity in which the countries of a region take part, through increased collaboration and unification of policies in various areas. To this end, there are several different conceptions of regional integration.

A-CONCEPTUAL TYPOLOGY OF INTEGRATION

Regional integration involves strengthening economic, institutional and political links between countries that are geographically close. It is a way of increasing the interdependence of countries, by removing obstacles and constraints in order to facilitate cooperation, in particular by reducing barriers to trade. When establishing and maintaining regional integration, countries must make four key decisions:

• Choosing which countries should become members of the regional group; - Defining the regional group's external policy towards countries that are not members;

• Defining the scope of the integration process in terms of interdependence; - Defining the scope of the integration process in terms of the sectors of economic, political, and institutional cooperation affected. In the light of the above, Philippe Hugon will identify five conceptions of regional integration.52

1. The liberal conception

According to the liberal view, trade integration is equated with the liberalisation of trade and factors of production; it is analysed in terms of global integration and "anti-world" free trade. Integration means reducing the distortions of national policies and moving national borders closer to the international market. From a liberal point of view, liberalisation on a global basis "erga omnes (for all)" leads to a higher optimum than liberalisation on a regional basis in stages. To this end, the static theory (Viner) analyses the creation and diversion of traffic leading to a second-order optimum, while the dynamic theory highlights competition, economies of scale and changes in the terms of trade53. In the context of customs unions, traffic creation outweighs traffic diversion (generally through the intensification of intra-zone trade). This effect is all the more significant when not only do the countries concerned produce similar goods; the customs union is large, but out-of-area tariffs are also high. The dynamic effects of trade integration are therefore measured in terms of economies of scale, competition, changes in the terms of trade and factor endowments54.

52 Hugon. P, Économie de l'Afrique, Découverte, Paris, 2003, 4ème éd.

53 In his theory, the author considers that pressure, i.e. the increased liberalisation of trade, allows integration to continue and to be consolidated. In his view, integration only requires the organisation of intergovernmental cooperation in order to take place: Viner Jacob, The customs Union Issue, London: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1950.

The effects of creating and diverting trade flows are therefore the result of three elements: a production or substitution effect of domestic goods for foreign goods; a consumer welfare effect; and a customs revenue effect. The creation or diversion of trade flows is therefore a function of the weight of foreign trade in relation to production; the proportion of foreign trade carried out with potential partners; the sensitivity of the structure of foreign trade to variations in customs duties and the importance of differences in product prices. These static models have been perfected by integrating the size of countries and natural partners, transport costs, imperfect competition, economies of scale and product differentiation. This type of integration is likely to increase the return on factors of production and lead to sustainable or less temporary growth. However, it should be borne in mind that the rest of the world is not a free trader, that external tariffs are the main source of public revenue, and that economies, by their very nature, need a minimum of protection.

In addition to improvements in the terms of trade, which can be envisaged under certain conditions, a number of dynamic effects are expected from integration through the market. Within the union, competition can be exerted on prices, quality and innovation. Internal rents and inefficiencies associated with national public monopolies can be reduced. The mobilisation of resources at regional level can therefore encourage the raising of external capital with a view to exporting to the world market or creating trade in products that are not open to competition on the world market. Economies of scale can be technical (law of increasing returns) or non-technical (common use of infrastructure, etc.).

54 Brada Josef C and Mendez José A, An estimate of dynamics effects of economic integration, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 1988.

Regional integration is therefore supposed to increase the efficiency of certain factors of production. This effect was measured not only by Baldwin55 for the case of the European Union, but also by Brada and Mendez for six regional integration agreements between 1960 and 1977 (European Economic Community (EEC), Latin American Free Trade Association (ALALE), Central American Common Market (CACM), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), European Free Trade Association (EFTA)56. Other effects can also be noted, in particular the relative fall in transaction costs linked to Regional Integration Agreements (RIAs), which reduce the price of tradable products and capital goods; and the fall in customs tariffs and the liberalisation of the financial sector, which can stimulate investment57.

The dynamic gains induced by trade make it possible to compare multilateral or regional liberalisation with a Regional Cooperation Agreement. According to Baldwin, out of 109 cases of participation in 18 regional cooperation agreements (RCAs) over the period 1950-1992, the impact of RCAs on growth was rather negative, whereas in 51 cases of generalised liberalisation, openness had a positive impact on growth. Countries with large, open neighbours grow faster. In the case of developing economies where closed regionalism has prevailed, the diversion effect outweighs the creation effect. In the case of East Asian countries, there is certainly a link between regional openness and growth, but it is more a case of controlled openness linked to the construction of competitive advantages. This debate between integration planned by states and integration by markets has been revived by industrial economics and the economics of geography, which take account of externalities, agglomeration effects and cumulative processes that push societies further away from equilibrium.

55 Baldwin Richard, Measurable Dynamic Gains from Trade, Journal of Political Economy, 1992.

56 Brada Josef C and Mendez José A, An estimate of dynamics effects of economic integration, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 1988.

57 Baldwin Richard, Measurable Dynamic Gains from Trade, Journal of Political Economy, 1992.

2. The industrial or territorial approach

According to a territorial conception analysed by geographical economics, integration is characterised by agglomeration and polarisation effects. It is a form of integration based on the strategy of players in a heterogeneous space and in a situation of imperfect competition. It is a kind of regional integration, driven by large conglomerates which implement their strategy within a regional framework and have converging interests (environmental protection, joint exploitation of resources, etc.), and is the result of internationalisation relations within multinational firms. On the one hand, globalisation is reducing distances and, a priori, the role of geographical proximity, in conjunction with technological revolutions and the weight of intangible exchanges. On the other hand, territories are creating agglomeration effects.

However, for territories to be able to trade with each other, they need production systems that allow for market size and diversified products, and consequently complementarity between agglomeration effects. This condition requires the creation of interconnecting physical or transactional infrastructures (networks), and therefore a well-defined territory. These infrastructures generally lead to the diffusion or contagion of growth by reducing transport costs, encouraging technology transfer and lowering transaction costs. Diffusion can take place through foreign trade, the international transfer of ownership rights in goods, direct investment such as the transfer of ownership rights in companies, and through non-market coordination such as internalisation within firms. The dynamics of territorial specialisation then take precedence over agglomeration effects. Regional integration can thus encourage growing divergence between states unless transfer mechanisms, such as regional structural funds for the peripheries, are put in place.

Centripetal forces are the technological and financial externalities of the existence of a labour market and the linkage effects between buyers and sellers. They lead to virtuous cumulative processes at the centre. The agglomeration of activities will therefore depend mainly on the interaction of two forces arising from the firm's internal returns to scale on the one hand, and transaction costs on the other.

The centrifugal forces that encourage the dispersion of activities include congestion, pollution, and other negative externalities. They result from factor mobility and high transport and transaction costs. By reducing trade barriers and promoting factor mobility, regional integration can instead encourage centripetal forces and interactions between centres and peripheries. According to Anthony J. Venables, this approach does, however, run the risk of diverting trade away from those countries whose comparative advantages differ most from the world average (i.e. the developing countries)58. At this point, agglomeration effects are likely to lead to concentrations of activities in high-income countries; internal comparative advantages between the member countries of a regional integration and external advantages vis-à-vis the rest of the world are also likely to lead to convergence and divergence effects depending on the respective factor endowments. Developing countries stand out in this type of integration because their capital intensity is lower than the world average. Regional integration of this type is therefore likely to increase the divergence of industries between the relatively less poorly endowed country and the more poorly endowed country, which suffers from traffic diversion. On the other hand, regional integration between two countries above the world average tends to reinforce convergence. So, integration between an above-average country and a below-average country tends more towards convergence, which could justify the essence of North-South integration.

58 Venables Anthony J., Regional Integration Agreements: A force of convergence or divergence?, Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1999.

According to Krugman, geographical concentration following territorial integration in a context of globalisation results in economies of scale (transport and transaction costs) that ensure international competitiveness59. Geographical models, according to Gunnar Myrdal60 and Hirshman61 , as well as empirical tests, have shown that, generally speaking, in the context of a regional union of this type, there is real convergence between developed countries, while divergence tends to be the rule within less industrialised countries. The territorial dimension of regional integration therefore appears to be strong in areas such as East Asia. The role of maritime networks, road infrastructures and information circuits can thus go a long way towards explaining the virtuous Asian regional sequence. Spatial capital is therefore developed through educational and physical infrastructure, as well as through agglomeration effects62. These have historically played a role within emerging countries, and they are now playing a role on a supranational East Asian scale, with proximity effects beyond this economic bloc. Many Asian territorial projects, for example, have created agglomeration effects. Growth triangles or polygons (e.g. Sijori1, Indonesia/Malaysia/Thailand Triangle, Greater South China, Greater Mekong Subregion) today represent proximity zones for the joint management of natural resources, the development of infrastructures and the complementarity of factors in a defined regional community. These growth centres, with their diverse geometric configurations, are transnational groupings that bring together nearby regions to promote concentrated policies in the areas of domestic and foreign investment, infrastructure, and environmental protection, among others. As a result, these attractive areas are able to produce industrial agglomeration effects or cluster effects and create externalities favourable to the growth of integrated countries. 3. The proactive approach

59 Krugman, Development, geography, and economic theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Press, 1997.

60 Myrdal, G, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions, G Duckworth, 1957.

61 Hirschman, A O, The strategy of economic development, Yale University Press, 1958.

62 Akanni Honvo and Alain Léon, La croissance endogène régionalisée, In La régionalisation comparée en Afrique sub-saharienne et en Asie de l’Est, Revue Tiers Monde, 1998.

This is regional integration based on the construction of a production system that is more or less disconnected from the system of international prices and aims to protect itself from globalisation. It is a concept that presupposes a framework for analysing dependent and extroverted societies, in which industrialisation cannot be achieved on a national scale. The objectives of this regional integration are to create a vast market, increase bargaining power, reduce extroversion, and offset territorial imbalances. This form of integration uses the instruments of the administered economy63. These services, and the way they are distributed in society, are not linked to a market, but to political decisions. The European Union's regional integration strategy uses a high level of protection at regional level and focuses on projects that have a polarising effect. It is the type of regional integration supported by certain international organisations such as the UNECLAC and the UNECA, which have long defended it. COMECON, which is based on bilateral and multilateral agreements and on a system that is disconnected from comparative advantages and world price signals, is a perfect example. COMECON gave concrete form to political voluntarism using instruments such as administered prices, the option for heavy industries and currency non-convertibility, to name but a few. The end of COMECON in 1991 with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the disintegration of the USSR can be seen not only as the demise of a voluntarist integration process completely disconnected from the global economy, but also as the failure of a closed regionalism.

63 An economic system in which basic or strategic decisions are taken by the administrative authorities and not by companies. In this sense, it is a synonym for the planned economy. However, this term is also sometimes used to refer to that part of the economy whose purpose is to produce non-market services financed by taxation, and which is therefore the responsibility of the government (as defined in the national accounts).

According to the old voluntarist conception, regional integration, far more than a process of disconnection from the global economy, implies the protection of spatial planning policies. Indeed, the main instruments of this integration are the administered economy, the strong protection of regional industries and the implementation of projects with polarising effects. Several degrees of integration can be distinguished, from the socialist division of labour in the former communist countries to regional import substitution projects. This voluntarist approach was aimed at avoiding duplication, developing industrialising heavy industries, and removing bottlenecks through infrastructure. However, these voluntarist integrations have failed and are now leading to regional disintegration. 4. The institutional approach

This is an integration based on a common system of socio-economic rules put in place under historical conditions by the public authorities, in conjunction with private players. Institutions make it possible not only to stabilise and secure the environment, but also to guarantee a degree of credibility by diluting preferences (by isolating control and judicial bodies from national lobbies) and institutional creation. These institutions also aim to become screens for the international economy by encouraging regional protection and transfers of sovereignty to these regional institutions. Institutional arrangements also serve to lend credibility to the liberalisation policies pursued by the least developed countries since the mid- 1980s, by giving them an irreversible character, backed by the implicit guarantee of the most developed partners. This type of regional integration is reflected in the harmonisation of fiscal, social and business legislation, among others. Indeed, recent institutional analyses of regional integration place increasing emphasis first and foremost on North/South relations, which enhance the credibility of economic policies while reducing conflicts of national interest. Secondly, these analyses insist on the coordination of economic policies and the harmonisation of legislation and practices. This standardisation, and the irreversibility of cyclical and structural policies, can make it easier, through Regional Integration Agreements (RIAs), to attract investment and international funding, promote technology transfer and strengthen cooperation between states. Fernandez and Portes explain why this type of benefit from Regional Integration Agreements (RIAs) cannot easily be obtained within a multilateral framework64. The policy credibility argument has been illustrated in particular by Whadley (1996) for CUSMA (former NAFTA), and François, Baldwin and Portes (1997) for the Euro-Med agreements. According to these authors, the argument of the credibility of economic policies linked to the dilution of preferences is likely to confer an irreversible character on opening and liberalisation policies. As a result, economic reforms undertaken unilaterally lack credibility because of time discontinuities, risks of reversibility and information asymmetries. RIAs make it possible to limit discriminatory measures by governments and the powers of lobbies and reveal the preferences of decision-makers. Vertical cooperation and free trade agreements can play a central role in reducing the reversibility of economic policies and establishing rules that allow investors to make long-term decisions. In addition, there are special dispute settlement mechanisms that reduce free rider behaviour (an economic agent who wants to benefit from a service free of charge, while making others bear the costs). On the other hand, the effects on countries that are not members of RIAs are controversial. There is a risk that the protectionist burden will be shifted in the event of a crisis (e.g. Mexico in 1994).

64 Fernández R and Portes J, Returns to Regionalism: An analysis of nontraditional gains from regional trade agreements, The Wolrd Bank Economic Review, 1998, Vol.12, Issue, 197-220.

In monetary terms, integration is either at the heart of the process (Franc zone) or at the end (EU). Monetary policy co-ordination or unification is generally absent in the various regional integration zones and appears to be an essential component of the regional integration process. To this end, monetary policies are only coordinated indirectly when the member countries of the same zone have chosen the same peg to a key currency (as in the case of the dollar peg of the ASEAN countries between 1985 and 1997). However, the issue of monetary policy co-ordination is becoming increasingly acute in the various integration zones due to the volatility of short-term capital flows, attacks on currencies and the disintegrating effects of uncoordinated devaluations (cf. the 30% devaluation of the real in January 1999, and the examples of ASEAN in July 1997, Brazil in 1999 and Argentina in 2000 and 2001). Regional analysis is now being revitalised by the issue of regional public goods. This philosophy is at the heart of CUSMA and the free trade agreements between the European Union and developing countries and regions.

This form of integration through unification of legal and technical rules, among others, encourages the emergence of large-scale economies with a view to integration into the global economy through standards such as product quality and certification, and reduces transaction costs, thereby improving international competitiveness.

5. The political or diplomatic approach

This form of integration, which involves a transfer of sovereignty, aims not only to prevent conflict but also to reintroduce politics into the centre of economic decision-making. The convergence of economic interests and the production of public goods on a regional scale, among other things, appear to be essential factors in attenuating regional political and ethnic rivalries between states in a context of globalisation.

In almost all cases of integration involving countries that have historically been at war with each other, this type of regional integration is a way of not only better managing the more or less significant incompatibilities between economic and political powers, but also facilitating dialogue and attenuating political antagonisms. Regional cooperation therefore appears to be one of the ways of preventing or regulating conflicts. To this end, most regional cooperation between developing countries is set up with the aim of changing the balance of power in international negotiations and creating coalitions. This kind of integration also makes it possible to adapt political and social regulation systems and institutional frameworks that go beyond the national aspect to the multiple networks of transnational trade and investment. This form of integration may be based on a large country with hegemonic power setting up rules for the production of international public goods. Or the overflow of states and regional interdependence can lead to the production and/or regulation of regional common goods such as water, energy, transport and communications at a regional level. Schiff and Winters (1998) have shown that trade between neighbouring countries strengthens trust, linked interests and, by extension, security. This is why Palachek concludes that there is a strong relationship between trade and conflict (Palachek, 1992). There is debate about causality and the role of planned versus unplanned trade relations. For example, the historical rivalries between the main powers in the East Asian region have been mitigated by trade and financial relations and the links that have been forged between the players. Even if the risks of military conflict are not negligible, particularly given the increase in armaments and the weight of nationalism, this integration remains a strategic choice for its various neighbouring states, through the interdependence between the interests of the economic powers to guarantee a sustainable regional integration process and the prevention of potential conflicts in the region. From these different conceptions of regional integration, we can see that the liberal conception emphasises the free movement of goods, services, and capital to promote economic growth. This is the case, for example, with the Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (CUSMA, former NAFTA) between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which aims to facilitate trade and investment between member countries. The voluntarist approach, on the other hand, is based on the political will of the Member States to cooperate to achieve common goals. An example of this is the African Union (AU), where African countries have chosen to cooperate in areas such as peace, security, and economic development. Industrial design in turn focuses on the development of industrial sectors to stimulate integration. This is the case, for example, with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which aims to promote industrial and economic development in the West African region. In addition, the institutional concept emphasises the creation of regional institutions to regulate and facilitate cooperation between countries. One example is the European Union (EU), with its institutions such as the European Commission and the European Parliament, which regulate and coordinate cooperation between Member States. Finally, the political approach focuses on the political decisions taken at regional level to promote integration. Each approach has its own specific characteristics and objectives in terms of regional integration. One example is the Organisation of American States (OAS), which brings together the countries of the Americas to discuss and decide on political issues and regional cooperation. All these forms of integration have political dimensions to varying degrees. Most of them bring together countries that have been at war with each other. Regional negotiations and dialogue are at the heart of regional integration, and the resulting convergence of economic and political interests is likely to neutralise border and regional conflicts. Security and confidence go hand in hand with the development of trade. Schiff and Winnters (1998) Palachek (1992) (Franco-German reconciliation, MERCOSUR and rivalry between Brazil and Argentina, etc.) show a clear negative causal correlation between trade relations and conflicts. However, in the absence of complementarity, regional integration can increase disparities between its different partners and fuel conflict.

B-REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES: AN INSTRUMENT FOR PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION

1. The concept of a Regional Economic Community

Regional Economic Communities are groups of countries in a given geographical area that agree to work together to strengthen economic relations and promote regional integration. These regional economic communities aim to stimulate economic growth and development, increase trade and investment and improve living standards for their citizens.

Regional Economic Communities come in many shapes and sizes, from sub-regional economic communities such as the East African Community (EAC) to larger ones such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the European Union (EU). These communities are characterised by shared cultural, historical and economic links that facilitate collaboration between member countries.

One of the main benefits of regional economic communities is the creation of a larger market for goods and services. This increase in market size creates economies of scale that benefit companies in the region. For example, the European Union enables companies to sell their products and services to a market of more than 500 million people and enjoy the commercial benefits that go with it.

The Regional Economic Communities also facilitate the movement of goods and people within the region. This movement can stimulate intra-regional trade, increase investment flows and promote tourism. Regional integration also enables member countries to pool resources to tackle common challenges, such as infrastructure development and climate change.

However, the success of regional economic communities depends on effective governance structures, commitment to the integration process and mutual benefit for member countries. To achieve this, regional economic communities rely on legal frameworks, policy coordination and shared institutions to coordinate regional activities.

In conclusion, regional economic communities are essential organisations that aim to promote economic growth, development, integration and cooperation between neighbouring countries. They are essential for providing business opportunities, promoting intra-regional trade and investment, and pooling resources to address common challenges. As such, many countries around the world continue to seek out and join regional economic communities to promote their economic growth and sustainable development. In the specific case of our study, Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in Africa bring together individual countries in sub-regions to facilitate greater regional integration. These communities are described as the "building blocks" of the African Union (AU) in the process of promoting regional integration between member states and the socio-economic development of the continent.

2- Criteria for recognising a Regional Economic Community

It is important to emphasise from the outset that the many criteria identified by economists for recognising an optimal Economic and Monetary Union are based on this Declaration by Ernest Haas (1958), Head of the neo-functionalist approach to integration: "Integration is thus a process for which the initial favourable conditions, the outcome, and the means necessary for its success must be studied. This process can succeed under certain conditions, which essentially include the size of states, the levels of transactions, pluralism and the complementarity of elites". From this point of view, the main theoretical criteria used by economists to recognise an optimal regional economic and monetary union over the course of history can be summarised as follows:

• Regional mobility of production factors;

• The degree of integration of economic policies and the identity of preferences in terms of sustainable growth and macroeconomic stability; - The degree of solidarity between the Member States of the Monetary Union; - The degree of diversification and complementarity of economies; - The political will to build a common economic and political destiny, materialised by the adoption of a common currency and the creation of a regional common market.

It is our task to explain these various complementary criteria for assessing the efficiency and competitiveness of regional economic and monetary unions.

a-Mundell's factor mobility criterion

According to Mundell, the mobility of factors of production, particularly labour, is one of the fundamental conditions for the existence of a regional economic community. To illustrate his hypothesis, Mundell adopted Ricardo's postulate on international trade: the mobility of goods is equivalent to the mobility of factors of production. For him, labour mobility between countries reduces the need for exchange rate variation as an instrument for restoring external competitiveness and eliminating internal imbalances. This mobility of labour between regions would tend towards convergence of wages and costs (equality of the price factor). Furthermore, the degree of factor mobility can be linked to geographical distance, which explains why this criterion is often used as the basis for the creation of economic blocs between neighbouring states. Thus, according to Mundell, a regional economic community can be defined when the mobility of factors within the area is greater than that of factors outside. Consequently, a fixed exchange rate can only be maintained when there is internal factor mobility. Conversely, the flexible exchange rate formula will be more advantageous when factor mobility (labour) is lower within the zone than vis-à-vis the outside.

In short, the application of this criterion of mobility of factors of production, according to Mundell, is at the origin of the principle of the free movement of people, goods, services and capital. This principle is the fundamental condition for the effective construction of a common market or a regional economic and monetary union.

b-The degree of integration of Bourguinat and Kindleberger economic policies

We are not talking here about criteria which are oriented towards the fixed exchange rate-flexible exchange rate trade-off, in other words towards the trade-off between monetary union and autonomy, or towards the conditions for achieving a genuine regional economic community, as Mundell thinks, but rather towards other proposals put forward by Bourguinat and de Kindleberger, Ingram (1969), Haberler (1970) and Tower and Millet (1970). These authors state that it is not economic criteria that are important in defining an economic area, but rather the compatibility of the economic policies of the member countries and their ability to cope with inflation and growth. Incompatible economic policies have been recognised as one of the main causes of the failure of attempts at economic integration, especially in Africa.

This criterion is therefore a necessary condition for the optimal creation of a regional economic community. To this end, Henri Bourguinat (1973) believes that any economic community project should be subject to a set of opportunity indicators based on two conditions:

• The circulation of an acceptable asset within the zone; - Commonality, or at least proximity, of national preferences in terms of significant developments: inflation rate, real wages, productivity, short, medium and long-term policies for the socio-economic development of member countries, etc.

Bourguinat's criterion is therefore based on the idea that, unless there is a consensus on the essential determinants and significant trends in their economies, any single currency process is virtually impossible. Kindleberger (1986) uses the following criteria:

• Trade intensity ; - The existence of identical preferences both for the goods and services they trade and for the collective goods themselves (peace, stability, sustainable growth, among others).

So, in addition to the necessary conditions for building a regional economic community, in particular the criteria of factor mobility and economic openness, Kindleberger adds a condition that he considers sufficient: the existence of an institutionalised agreement between the member countries on one or more major preferences, relating to the key objectives that determine the future, i.e. convergence in terms of internal stability objectives. These analyses by Bourguinat and Kindleberger thus set out the relevant conditions for building a regional economic area. It is important to emphasise that one of the implications of the Bourguinat and Kindleberger criteria is that any economic union must, among other things, enable Member States to meet the challenge of sustainable development. To this end, any optimal Economic Community must, among other things, possess efficient self-adjustment mechanisms enabling it to resolve crises and return to the path of sustainable development.

c-The degree of solidarity between countries in an optimal monetary zone by André Marchal and Albert Ondo Ossa

For the French economist André Marchal, solidarity between Member States is a fundamental condition for the success of any integration process, as confirmed by this Declaration:

"True integration is the integration of economies, not the integration of markets, which is only a pseudo-integration. The development of one country must benefit other members, in accordance with the principle of solidarity, and this result cannot be achieved within the framework of a free trade area, a customs union or a common market. Genuine integration is only conceivable at the level of an economic union when national economies become intertwined, accompanied by structural change.

Equality of opportunity means ensuring that, in the midst of this complex network of links that brings together previously separate units, none of them can take precedence over the others and dominate them. An integrated whole exists when the links of solidarity between these various elements are such that total freedom of exchange harms no one and benefits everyone".

Ondo Ossa Albert (2000) dwelt on this new optimality criterion, based on solidarity between candidate countries for an optimal economic zone65. He defines solidarity as a community of responsibilities that reflects a feeling and leads two or more economies to assist each other. This solidarity also highlights the ability of one country to accept the cost of managing another. The best example of solidarity is that between two regions of the same country. Every member country of a solidarity zone is liable for the actions of the other members, in other words for their surpluses and deficits. So, for there to be a single currency between two countries (or for the exchange rates of their currencies not to change), the deficit of one must be offset by the surplus of the other. And to do this, the two countries must agree on policies and a method of managing their external assets that can restore balance of payments equilibrium.

Like Bourguinat and Kindleberger's analysis, that of André Marchal and Albert Ondo Ossa, which emphasises the solidarity of present and future interests and preferences, has the merit of reminding us that an optimal economic community should never be a spontaneous development. It should neither be a legacy of history, nor the result of a simple assessment of the current costs and benefits of regional integration. Rather, an economic union should be the result of a rational conception of a community project for society, designed to enable member countries to meet the major challenges of the present and the future, in terms of sustainable development and regional stability and peace.

65 Ondo Ossa, A, Théorie des zones monétaires à la lumière de l'expérience et des perspectives de la Zone Franc Africaine, AFRC, 2000.

d-The degree of diversification and complementarity of Kenen's economies

In Kenen's view, the more diversified a nation's economy is, the more likely it is to have a fixed exchange rate within a currency area. He believes that a diversified economy has the means to offset the harmful effects of the instability of certain products (inflation, unemployment). Indeed, a diversified economy could reduce the impact of a negative shock affecting one product and prevent the need for variation in relative prices through the exchange rate. This analysis leads us to consider that a country should enter a monetary union if its foreign trade is sufficiently diversified geographically and sectorally. However, a region with limited production should adopt floating rates. These proposals give rise to the virtues attributed to a diversified economy: the stability of the terms of trade and the low real cost of adjustment to external imbalances by restricting demand. Kenen gives narrowly specialised countries a single choice, while fixed adjustable exchange rates mitigate real losses in the event of an external deficit.

This criterion also runs counter to reality, since it leads to the conclusion that large economies should adopt fixed rates and small economies flexible rates.

This criterion also appears implausible in the African economic and monetary unions of the Franc zone, whose member countries are for the most part export monocultures66.

In short, Kenen emphasises the diversity and complementarity of the economies of the countries making up the Union, as an essential condition for the Union's efficiency and international competitiveness.

e-The political will to build a common economic and political destiny,

materialised by the adoption of a single currency and the creation of a Frankel and Rose Regional Market

Frankel and Rose, on the other hand, believe that the criteria for identifying economic unions enumerated by previous authors are too rigorous, restrictive and exogenous. Consequently, in their view, in any process of regional integration, the political will of the member countries must come to the fore, which must be materialised in particular by the ambition to create a common currency and to set up a unified regional market. In short, the criteria for building regional economic communities are endogenous.

The ability of certain regions of the world to form efficient economic blocs should necessarily be reconsidered upwards. If satisfaction of the criteria is not proven before the unification of currencies (ex-ante), it is quite likely to become so ex-post, as a result of the multidimensional beneficial effects of the economic community. The creation of a common currency, for example, combined with the political will to create a regional market, are likely to accelerate the integration of the economies of the Member States of the Union, and promote the advent of an efficient regional economic community.

66 Ondo Ossa, A, Théorie des zones monétaires à la lumière de l'expérience et des perspectives de la Zone Franc Africaine, AFRC, 2000.

Frankel and Rose's approach is fundamentally innovative compared with traditional approaches, which place greater emphasis on historical and economic determinism in the criteria for recognising a regional economic area, and seem to exclude the political will of Member States to build a common economic destiny and promote sustainable development within the regional economic community. In their innovative approach, Frankel and Rose highlight the initiatives of developing countries in general, and African countries in particular, which, faced with common economic problems such as poverty and marginalisation, are committed to creating regional economic and monetary blocs that match the real development ambitions of their peoples.

These new emerging economic communities of developing countries, although not optimal in terms of traditional criteria at the time of their creation, are destined to become so in the long term, thanks to the political will of these countries to build a common economic and monetary destiny. It should be emphasised that the criteria for identifying economic unions, identified above, are complementary, insofar as an ideal regional economic community must satisfy all the criteria concerned.

3. Conditions for the creation of a REC

The conditions for the creation of a regional economic community vary according to the continent and the countries involved. In general, countries must be willing to cooperate and work together to achieve common political and socio-economic objectives. Common policies, such as the adoption of common customs tariffs or a common currency, the strengthening of regulatory cooperation and the establishment of common financing mechanisms, the coordination of economic policies; among others, may also be necessary.

Indeed, to achieve common customs tariffs, the member countries of a regional economic community must agree on a common trade policy. This may include abolishing customs duties on trade between member countries or imposing common customs tariffs on imports from countries outside the community. The establishment of a common market can also facilitate the free movement of goods and services between member countries. With regard to the adoption of a common currency, the member countries of a regional economic community must agree on a common monetary policy. This may include the adoption of a single currency for trade between member countries or the coordination of national monetary policies to ensure exchange rate stability between member countries. The creation of a common central bank may also be necessary to manage the common monetary policy.

With regard to strengthening regulatory cooperation and establishing common financing mechanisms, the member countries of a regional economic community must agree on a common regulatory policy and common financing mechanisms. This may include the harmonisation of regulations and standards between member countries to facilitate trade. Setting up a common fund to finance economic development projects may also be necessary. Finally, it is important that member countries commit to respecting the rules and standards of the regional economic community to ensure that it functions properly. The member countries of a regional economic community must agree on a common economic policy to achieve coordination of economic policies. This may include the coordination of fiscal, monetary and trade policies between member countries to ensure economic stability and growth. Member countries must also be willing to share the benefits and costs of the regional economic community on an equitable basis. Finally, it is important that member countries commit to respecting the rules and standards of the regional economic community to ensure its smooth functioning.

4- Objectives of RECs

The objectives of regional economic communities may vary from one region to another, but in general they aim to promote regional integration between member countries in the same geographical area. This may include trade liberalisation, coordination of economic and fiscal policies, promotion of labour and investment mobility, and cooperation on security and defence. The ultimate aim, however, remains to strengthen cooperation and integration between member countries in order to create a stronger, more united region. Other objectives of the regional economic communities could include promoting regional peace, stability and security, protecting the environment, promoting human rights and democracy, and reducing economic and social inequalities between member countries. To this end, these objectives aim to improve the overall quality of life of the populations and to strengthen cooperation and solidarity between member countries.

In Africa, the aim of the regional economic communities is to promote economic, social and political integration between member countries in order to stimulate economic growth, create jobs and reduce poverty. The focus of African regional integration has been on trade liberalisation, coordination of economic and fiscal policies, promotion of labour and investment mobility, and cooperation on security and defence. Regional economic communities have also been set up with the aim of strengthening cooperation in infrastructure, research and development, and training and education.

This is why the regional economic communities call on a range of players on both sides, such as international organisations and private sector partners, to achieve their objectives. But they also use a variety of instruments to achieve their objectives, including free trade agreements; security and defence cooperation agreements; infrastructure development programmes; training and education programmes, and research and development projects.

II-TYPOLOGY OF APPROACHES AND MOTIVATIONS FOR REGIONAL INTEGRATION

A-DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO REGIONAL INTEGRATION

In order to gain a better understanding of the evolution of economic and political thinking in the field of regional integration, we will present in turn the developments over the years, from older theoretical perceptions such as the neoclassical market approach to the more recent neo-Keynesian structuralist approach, via complex integration and functionalist approaches. 1. The market approach to integration

The market-based approach to regional integration is based on the limited size of the markets of a large number of countries in the world, and on the static effects of integration, and proposes the creation of regional economic communities for countries belonging to the same region. To this end, the protected regional market is supposed to ensure, among other things, widespread use of economies of scale, leading to increased investment (particularly capital inflows) and greater efficiency in installed industrial capacity; secondly, a better allocation of resources, as investment shifts to the most favoured areas within the regional bloc, thus improving economic competition within the said region, and eliminating inefficient production within the economic area concerned; and finally, an improvement in the trade relations of the countries of the region with third countries, as a consequence of a better negotiating position of the integrated Region67. In this respect, it should be noted that at the beginning of the 1960s, the majority of those involved gave market integration a great deal of credibility, considering that it opened up significant prospects for development, both for developed and developing countries.

However, from the end of the 1960s, this approach to integration through the market, in its original form, was strongly criticised by a number of theorists who felt that this model of integration was not suited to the production and trade conditions of developing countries, where the level of intra-regional trade was low, the benefits of trade liberalisation at sub-regional level would not only be rapidly exhausted at the same time as the removal of protectionist trade measures within regional integration groupings, but would also be likely to worsen the position of the least developed member countries, through an unequal distribution of the benefits of integration.

2. The complex integration approach

The perception of regional integration by means of the complex integration approach results in a qualitative leap in relation to that of the market economy, materialised by the incorporation of two new elements into the concerns of researchers, namely: the specific characteristics of integration possessed by developing countries, which are very different from those of integration between developed countries; and the heterogeneity of levels of development between developing countries, which is so significant and poses new challenges to integration theories. The difference in the nature of integration between developed and developing countries becomes apparent. In developed countries, the integration process is built on the basis of existing interdependence and the high technological level of production. The function of integration in these economies is to create a framework for adjusting production and consumption patterns at the margin. In the case of developing economies, the primary function of integration is to bring about fundamental structural change and to boost economic growth68. More precisely, the integration process is therefore induced rather than being a result of the level of development.

67 Belassa. B, The theory of economic integration, Routledge, London, 1962, p.305.

Thinking about integration between developing countries is thus freed from the limitations of the theory of customs unions. Indeed, it takes an interdisciplinary approach and establishes a genuine link with development theory.

Attention is no longer focused on the aspects relating to external trade (following the description of the modification of the hypothesis of the static effects of regional integration), but above all on the segments of the socio-economic system which could be concerned, and on the set of instruments, the economy and, in part, social policy which could contribute to successful integration.

The market approach to integration does not attach particular importance to the question of the equitable distribution of costs and benefits between partner countries, whereas in complex integration, many authors insist on a realistic approach and develop models of the effects of integration on individual countries. The focus then shifts to the distinction in levels of economic development between the member countries of a regional grouping. In order to avoid deepening intra-regional differences, a number of measures were proposed, including the granting of reciprocal trade preferences, priorities in the allocation of common investment funds and direct compensation to countries with lower levels of relative development.

68 Suarez A, (2009), Regional Integration: Evolution of a concept, Hachette Supérieur, 2009, p.106.

At the beginning of the 1960s, a small number of authors were already stressing the need for strong economic intervention by the state, while most of them predicted that the regional market would itself optimise the process of socio-economic development. Subsequently, a growing number of economists began to consider the role of the state as one of the preconditions for successful integration. However, this examination of the role of the state within the regional grouping is mainly linked to its function of redistribution in the mission to reduce the effects of polarization, the 'counter-effects' of integration, to use Gunnar Myrdal's expression. If socio-economic development cannot be achieved without changing the internal structure of developing countries, as well as their external relations, then the enlarged market will not be sufficient to guarantee both national and regional integration. Indeed, market expansion does not necessarily help to speed up industrialisation unless production conditions are improved at the same time. The role of the State in integration policy is all the more essential when the level of development of the countries concerned is low and national differences are significant.

In the market-led approach to integration, developing countries were faced with certain problems, particularly as a result of trade liberalisation (negotiation systems, dynamics and pace of tariff liberalisation, etc.). As the problems of integration became more "complex", a number of strategic questions emerged: priority to sub-regional or regional integration; priority to partial, sectoral or general integration; choice of speed and dynamics of the integration process. As regards geographical coverage, i.e. the optimum number of countries, several authors have favoured sub-regional integration. Among the sectors, priority has been given to industry, as well as to certain infrastructure activities, and among the areas of partial integration, the greatest attention has been devoted to monetary and payments unions.

As far as the dynamics of integration are concerned, theorists of complex integration try to favour economic communities over free trade areas, customs unions or common markets.

It is important to note that the complex integration approach is characterised by a strong consideration of the integration problems of developing countries. 3. Functionalist approach to integration

The functionalist approach considers that nations can maximise their gains through the assistance of international organisations based on functional rather than territorial principles. This approach encourages the strengthening of existing functional organisations and the coordination of their activities. In a future phase - to be determined over time - this coordination would be taken over by an "international government" that would gradually develop from a technical structure into a political body. For David Mitrany, guaranteeing peace would mean integrating all the states into a large federation. He suggests a functionalist alternative, which consists of enveloping the political divisions in a "web of international activities and agencies in which, and through which, the interests and existence of all nations would be progressively integrated" as functional necessity becomes apparent. It should be pointed out that this functionalist approach to regional integration was supplemented by a neo-functionalist approach, one of the main leaders of which was Ernest Haas. Unlike his predecessor Mitrany, Haas attached greater importance to organisations. In his view, functional integration consists of the deliberate action of a central institution which gives a decisive impetus to provoke a dynamic of integration which has induced effects. In addition, these theorists believe that integration is a process for which the initial favourable conditions, the outcome and the necessary means of success must be studied.

The functionalist approach has thus contributed, like the complex integration approach, to taking better account of the dynamics and problems of integration in developing countries, insofar as most of the authors of this approach emphasise from the outset the inadequacy of standard economic thinking to incorporate the necessary changes in the international economy, in order to ensure the success of regional integration between developing countries.

4. Structuralist approach to regional integration

The structuralist approach to integration is based on the major lessons learned from integration processes in the Third World, and is developed from a sociological perspective, focusing on the analysis of social actors. The factors considered may be endogenous or exogenous; economic, social or political; short, medium or long term. The structuralist approach is essentially characterised by the identification of the determining factors in the success or failure of integration processes in developing countries, and by the methodological approach used. According to the structuralist approach, the youth of regional integration in the developing world is conditioned by the economic situation of the 1960s and 1970s. It is the result of a historical construction, of a political system that contains the various national political systems, and in some ways goes beyond them. Regional integration therefore brings with it the emergence of a new historical actor, involving a rapprochement between national systems, through the multiplication and deepening of their relations, and the transfer of powers to a community centre. Regional integration projects in the Third World thus appear in an international and regional context that conditions and determines them.

This definition of regional integration therefore includes a structural dimension, insofar as regional integration now appears to be a process through which two or more actors create a new actor.

Market integration, complex integration, functionalist integration and structuralist integration are different approaches to regional integration. Market-based integration focuses mainly on reducing trade barriers between member countries, thereby promoting free trade and the circulation of goods and services. Examples include the European Union and the Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (CUSMA, former NAFTA). While recognising the multi-dimensional nature of regional integration, complex integration goes beyond the simple economic aspect by including political, social, cultural and institutional factors in the analysis, such as the coordination of monetary, fiscal and social policies, among others, for deeper harmonisation and successful integration between member countries. This is the case, for example, of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the African Union. By focusing on the interdependent relationships between societies and institutions, functionalist integration implies progressive cooperation that stems from the need to address common problems and achieve shared goals in specific areas such as security, education or health, before considering broader integration. A case in point is the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Finally, structuralist integration, while emphasising the impact of external forces and global dynamics on regional integration processes, places the emphasis on analysing integration in the context of power structures and unequal relations in order to promote convergence in the regional integration process. This is the case, for example, of the integration process adopted by the African Union (AU) on the basis of its Regional Economic Communities.

At the end of the review of the different theoretical perceptions of regional integration, it emerges in particular that the integration approach by the market in its original form is more appropriate to explain the dynamics of integration in developed countries. As for the complex integration approach and the functionalist and structuralist approaches, they make it possible to better define the problem of integration in developing countries, and to better elucidate the dynamics of evolution of the said processes.

B-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CONCEPT OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

1. Typology of Community regional integration policies Regional integration policies are instruments made available to the Member States of a regional integration area to build a regional economic and monetary union in general and a unified regional common market in particular. These regional integration policies can be divided into two main categories: - Integration policies based on the regulation of regional economic activity and the harmonisation of national economic policies; - Integration policies through liberalisation of the Community market.

a-Community policies to regulate economic activity

Community policies for regulating economic activity refer to a certain number of objectives, such as consumer protection, promoting competition, regulating monopolies and oligopolies, regulating financial markets, protecting the environment and promoting sustainable development, among others. Indeed, these policies can be implemented by governments, international organisations and regional economic communities, which can work together to develop common standards and regulations, which in turn generally ensure the stability and sustainability of economies, as well as the protection of consumer rights and the environment.

Community policies for regulating economic activity should, in this context, promote economic growth, job creation and business development. This may include measures to encourage investment, facilitate access to finance, improve training and education, and promote innovation and research and development. Community policies may also seek to promote social cohesion and equal opportunities, by ensuring that the benefits of economic growth are distributed fairly among all members of society.

Furthermore, Community policies tend both to guarantee the security and stability of markets, by regulating commercial and financial practices and putting in place mechanisms to protect against economic and financial risks, and to encourage economic and political cooperation between nations, by promoting international trade and investment, harmonising standards and regulations and supporting development efforts in developing countries. In the specific case of our study, Community policies are also used to promote peace and security between the member countries of the regional economic community, through cooperation between nations and the peaceful resolution of economic and political disputes.

b-Community policies to liberalise a community market

Community policies to liberalise a Community market can play an important role in building regional integration by encouraging trade and investment between Community member countries. By eliminating tariff and non-tariff barriers, liberalisation policies can encourage competition and economic specialisation, which can stimulate economic growth and job creation within the regional economic bloc. Liberalisation policies can also help to increase the efficiency and competitiveness of businesses, allowing them to access new markets and benefit from a greater diversity of suppliers and customers. Liberalisation policies can also help to strengthen social cohesion and equal opportunities, by enabling citizens to reap the benefits of economic growth and job creation. Liberalisation policies can also help to strengthen not only the economic and political ties between the member countries of the Community, by encouraging cooperation and integration in other areas such as research and development, education and vocational training, environmental protection and others, but also the position of member countries on the international stage, by enabling them to negotiate more favourable trade and economic agreements with other countries or regional blocs. Finally, liberalisation policies can help to strengthen confidence and solidarity between the member countries of the community, by creating a predictable and stable economic and commercial environment, which can encourage cooperation and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. However, these effects of policies to liberalise a Community market can only be seen once a certain number of mechanisms have been implemented. The mechanisms for liberalising a community market can include the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, such as customs duties, import quotas, rules of origin, technical standards and regulations, etc. Liberalisation policies can also lead to the introduction of common rules for businesses, such as competition rules, intellectual property rules, consumer and environmental protection rules, etc. In addition, liberalisation policies may include not only the coordination of macroeconomic policies, such as monetary, fiscal and budgetary policies, to ensure economic and financial stability throughout the Community, but also the promotion of the mobility of workers, students and researchers, to encourage cultural and scientific exchanges between the member countries of the Community.

2. Benefits of regional integration

The ultimate objective of regional integration is not only to strengthen interdependence between the member countries of an economic community through an overall increase in intra-and extra-continental trade, but also to facilitate the development process of its members. There are several advantages to regional integration. These include the creation of trade opportunities; the creation of employment opportunities; the functioning of financial markets; the attraction of foreign direct investment; the emergence of an influential political bloc; the promotion of economic convergence; and the elimination of local individualism.

a) Creating business opportunities

All countries participating in the regional integration process can choose from an enormous range of goods and services. Among other things, the introduction of regional integration makes it possible to obtain goods and services cheaply. This is because the removal of barriers to trade reduces or completely eliminates tariffs. Lower taxes and prices save money that countries can use to buy other products and services. This gives Member States : - A wide selection of goods and services that were previously unavailable; - Goods and services that they pay less for after tariffs have been reduced or eliminated;

• An increase in trade between member countries because the money saved on the purchase of cheap goods can be used to acquire new products and services.

b) Creation of employment opportunities

The various options available in regional integration help to liberalise and encourage trade. This leads to market expansion through which large amounts of capital are invested in the country's economy. This creates employment opportunities for people across the regional economic area. Workers move from one country to another in search of jobs and better wages. As regional integration encourages trade liberalisation and market expansion; increased in-country investment and greater diffusion of technology, it creates even more job opportunities for people who move from one country to another to find work and earn more money. For example, industries that use unskilled labour tend to move their production units to countries where labour is cheaper, as part of a regional cooperation agreement.

c) Functioning of financial markets

Regional integration is extremely beneficial for financial markets, as it makes it easier for companies to borrow capital at a concessionary interest rate. This is because the liquidity of the enlarged capital markets increases, and the resulting diversification reduces the risks that accompany intensive investment. d) Attracting foreign direct investment

Regional integration also encourages an increase in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Once companies engage in FDI, through new operations, mergers, takeovers or acquisitions, they become international businesses. Countries with larger economies or that are geographically close to the larger economies in a given region can expect to see an increase in FDI as they join the integration process of countries with smaller economies or that are located on the periphery. Indeed, regional integration mechanisms can also increase investment in Member States by reducing distortions, expanding markets and enhancing the credibility of economic and political reforms. In the long term, the returns on investment will be better, greater in number and volume, and there will be fewer economic and political uncertainties. Customs unions can also encourage foreign investors to bypass tariffs, i.e. to invest in one member country and trade freely with all the others, thereby increasing local and foreign investment. In addition to the direct impact on production, the growth in investment - particularly Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) - can encourage the transfer of knowledge and technology and its spin-offs, thereby improving productivity in member countries69.

e) Emergence of an influential political bloc

Countries that engage in regional integration form a grouping and acquire greater political influence than any individual country. Integration is an essential strategy for solving the problems of political instability and conflicts between states that can affect a region. It is also an effective tool for dealing with the socio-economic challenges that accompany globalisation.

f) Promoting economic convergence

Regional integration can be conducive to real economic convergence between member countries through the opening up of markets to foreign competition, resulting from the dismantling of bureaucratic and strategic barriers to entry and the removal of constraints on the free movement of capital, labour and other resources.

g) Elimination of local individuality

The liberalisation of trade and the increased mobility of factors of production between member countries contribute to the elimination of existing local monopolies; and move the hitherto imperfect structures of competition towards an ideal of perfect competition. More competitive markets lead to greater efficiency in terms of improved resource allocation and lower production costs, as well as increased and diversified productivity.

69 Rapport sur le développement dans le monde : combattre la pauvreté, 2000/2001.

3- Conditions for regional economic integration

The success or failure of regional integration depends first and foremost on its members. The more "similar" they are, the more likely they are to come together. This presupposes that the countries contemplating such a move towards union are fully aware of the structural foundations of their economies, their institutions and the complex dispositions of their societies. An in-depth diagnosis would provide a better understanding of national strengths and weaknesses. Taking account of the regional level is the second phase of the diagnosis. It enables us to identify the new opportunities offered by regional integration within an economic community, as well as the actual or potential risks inherent in bringing neighbours closer together.

But first and foremost, regional integration is possible if, and only if, the countries aspiring to closer ties perceive real and/or achievable economic benefits. What's more, even with a certain guarantee of joint achievements and realisation of benefits, if a country feels that not belonging to the integrated area would provide it with additional added value, the choice of not being part of the venture is naturally more appropriate.

The regional level is preferable when purely national and/or international action is less appropriate. In this case, countries embark on the path of rapprochement, adopting rhythms and directions that need to coincide, in order to make regional integration and their development processes relatively coherent. Economic theory usually identifies a certain number of prerequisites for the success of regional integration. It emphasises the need for member countries to move inexorably closer together. This closeness, whether actual or at least potentially achievable, is multi-dimensional in nature, with economics, geography, politics, culture and history all intertwining to form a solid foundation capable of withstanding internal divisions or external turbulence. In economic terms, the convergence of national situations is often a crucial element in achieving regional integration. This means that countries have similar economic dynamics, without requiring perfect equality in nominal terms. Success is more likely when members have very similar levels of development from the outset or are on a trend that would enable them to achieve such structural convergence in the medium term, notably through the adoption of compatible economic strategies.

Complementarity between the member countries of the common area is also cited as one of the economic prerequisites for the success of regional integration. Complementarity is often seen as the driving force behind regional trade. But this complementarity needs to be translated into reality on the ground, which is why it is necessary to qualify its mandatory nature for the success of regional integration.

Regional integration must also offer all the countries it integrates unrestricted access to domestic markets, in order to exploit complementarities and intensify trade and interdependence. Regional integration must also have a sufficiently large size and market to enable firms to exploit dimensional effects and economies of scale.

As for the other aspects of regional integration, it is often accepted that countries wishing to set up such cooperation must first have stable political, security and institutional situations. The success of the joint venture largely depends on the absence of disputes and hegemonic relations between neighbours.

Beyond geographical proximity and territorial continuity, which are intrinsic to the region and to the notion of regional integration, the countries also share other common heritages. Success is more likely when states recognise that they share a similar, and sometimes even identical, history, culture, social practices and popular aspirations. Political impetus and the support of the people are inexorably achieved in this way. All that remains is to jointly define the most appropriate path to successful regional integration.

C. THE LINK BETWEEN REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Regional integration can foster the development of the countries in an economic community by encouraging the pooling of resources, the expansion of markets, growth in trade and investment, greater diversification and added value, and thus reduce their dependence on a small number of developed country markets. Regional integration is also seen as the first step towards greater integration into the global economy, through the removal of economic barriers in general and trade barriers in particular. The relationship between regional integration and socio-economic development is therefore based on: - Competition and economies of scale

A larger market allows for economies of scale, enabling companies to expand and keep costs to a minimum. Other producers benefit from increased visibility, which encourages competition, greater efficiency and technology transfer. Regional integration can also increase or improve the competitiveness of companies and strengthen economic ties between member countries. - Trade and location effects

A larger integrated market also changes the relative price of countries' goods and services, while lower tariffs can reduce the price of imports, giving people access to a wider choice of products. In addition, changes in relative prices resulting from the removal of trade barriers will tend to drive producers to locate elsewhere in order to achieve economies of scale and technology transfers; and to minimise their transport costs. Essentially, this means that regional integration will have uneven consequences, with some areas benefiting more than others. - Political and institutional consolidation

Regional integration can also have political benefits, such as promoting peace and stability between member countries, as well as creating a forum for political cooperation and the resolution of common problems. Regional integration can also strengthen institutional capacity and regulatory standards, improve access to technology and knowledge, and encourage sustainable and inclusive economic growth.

In short, this chapter has sought to highlight the conceptual and theoretical frameworks of the notion of regional integration. This was done successively by presenting, on the one hand, the liberal, industrial or territorial, voluntarist, institutional and diplomatic or political conceptions, and the RECs as an instrument for promoting regional integration. On the other hand, the different approaches to integration are highlighted, such as the market approach to integration, the complex integration approach, the functionalist approach to integration, the structuralist approach to integration, and Community integration policies, among others. In addition to these different conceptual and theoretical frameworks for regional integration, they have served as the basis for the development and orientation of several regional integration processes in different regions of the world. In the next chapter, we will show the main construction processes inspired by these conceptual and theoretical frameworks for regional integration.

CHAPTER II: THE PROCESS OF BUILDING REGIONAL INTEGRATION

In the aftermath of the creation of the United Nations, the promotion and strengthening of cooperation between States in the same region in particular, and throughout the world in general, was seen by the international community as an appropriate response to the preservation of international peace and security and the promotion of socio-economic development. It is for this reason that, with the support of the UN Regional Economic Commissions, the countries of the various regions have since set about defining the appropriate regional integration processes for each continent. A strategic perspective that raises a concern among specialists in international relations: what are the elements that define a regional integration process within a region? In order to answer this question, we will organise the chapter along two main lines. Firstly, we will present the modalities and principles of a regional integration process in general, as well as some specific features relating to our case study (I); then, we will present the different theoretical stages of a regional integration process (II).

I-MODALITIES AND PRINCIPLES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

A-MODALITIES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

Regional integration is an ambiguous concept that eludes elucidation and precise measurement. The process of integration by which countries move towards more active participation in the international system in general and the international economic system in particular, can be achieved through various measures. To this end, regional integration appears to be the means by which countries can progressively, depending on their degree of development, ensure both the strengthening of economic cooperation and the facilitation of trade; the harmonisation of national policies and regulations; the establishment of regional institutions and mechanisms and the promotion of interpersonal and cultural exchanges between the peoples of the integration zone. Consequently, analysing the modalities of regional integration implies identifying the prerequisites for implementing a regional integration process and, in the specific case of our work, identifying the normative gap and the current imbalance in the structure of the regional integration process in Africa. In addition, to make it a more coherent whole, likely to accelerate the process of regional integration in the African integration zone. The prerequisites for building a regional integration zone are based on segments such as: political will; an institutional framework; a legal and regulatory framework; economic complementarity; infrastructure development; socio-cultural cohesion; strong stakeholder participation, among others.

• Political will

Regional integration requires a strong political commitment on the part of the Member States to work together towards a common goal. This includes a willingness to cooperate, to compromise and to make collective decisions that prioritise the greater regional good over individual national interests. - An institutional framework

An effective institutional framework is essential to promote regional integration. This includes the establishment of regional institutions and mechanisms that can facilitate coordination, cooperation and the implementation of regional integration initiatives. These institutions should have the necessary authority, resources and capacity to drive the integration process.

• A legal and regulatory framework

A well-developed legal and regulatory framework is crucial for regional integration. This includes the adoption of common rules, standards and regulations that facilitate trade, investment and the movement of people within the region. Harmonisation and alignment of national laws with regional agreements is necessary to ensure consistency and coherence. - Economic complementarity

Regional integration is more likely to succeed when member states have complementary economies. This means that their economies have different strengths, resources and specialities, which can promote intra-regional trade and economic cooperation. Complementarity enhances the potential for economic synergies and the benefits of regional integration. - Infrastructure development

Adequate infrastructure, such as transport networks, energy networks and digital connectivity, is essential to promote regional integration. Investment in infrastructure projects that improve connectivity across the region is necessary to facilitate trade, investment and the movement of goods, services and people. - Socio-cultural cohesion

Regional integration is facilitated when there is a sense of common identity, shared values and socio-cultural cohesion between member states. Promoting cultural exchanges, people-to-people interaction and social cohesion initiatives can help foster a sense of regional community and belonging. - Strong stakeholder involvement

The involvement and commitment of various stakeholders, including governments, the private sector, civil society organisations and academia, is crucial to promoting regional integration. Stakeholders should be actively involved in decision-making processes, in the implementation of regional projects and in the monitoring and evaluation of integration initiatives. It is important to note that the preconditions for promoting regional integration may vary according to the specific region and its unique challenges and dynamics. Flexibility and adaptability to the specific context of the potential integration area to be built, therefore, become necessary to effectively promote regional integration.

B-THE PILLARS OF THE MAIN TYPES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE WORLD

These pillars can be specifically classified into three main areas. 1. Economic integration

Economic integration is a key pillar of regional integration and involves the coordination and harmonisation of economic policies, regulations and trade facilitation measures between member states. Key elements of economic integration include:

• Free trade agreements: These agreements aim to reduce or eliminate tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade, promoting the free movement of goods and services within the region.

• Customs unions: In a customs union, member states adopt a common external tariff regime and eliminate internal tariffs, promoting trade within the region and creating a unified market.

• Common market: A common market allows the free movement not only of goods and services, but also of the trading populations of the community.

2. Political integration

Political integration aims to strengthen political cooperation, coordination and decision-making between Member States. Key elements of political integration include:

• Regional institutions: The creation of regional institutions, such as the European Union (EU), the African Union (AU) or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), provides a platform for Member States to engage in political dialogue, take collective decisions and coordinate their efforts towards common goals.

• Harmonisation of policies: Member States work to harmonise policies and regulations in various sectors, such as trade, finance, agriculture, security and human rights, to ensure consistency and coherence in their approach. • Intergovernmental cooperation: Member States engage in regular meetings, summits and negotiations to discuss and resolve regional issues, conflicts and challenges. They also cooperate in areas such as defence, security and cross-border law enforcement.

3. Social and cultural integration

Social and cultural integration aims to promote social cohesion, cultural exchange and people-to-people interaction between the populations of the Member States. The key elements of social and cultural integration are: • Cultural exchanges and initiatives: Promoting cultural festivals, exchanges and educational programmes to improve mutual understanding and cohesion, strengthening cooperation between the different communities in the integration region.

• Social cohesion initiatives: Encourage cross-border collaboration, social projects and initiatives to tackle common social challenges, such as poverty, inequality and migration.

• Harmonisation of values and standards: Member States work to align and promote common values, human rights standards and democratic principles within the integration area.

It is important to note, however, that the level of integration within these forms of regional integration may vary in different parts of the world, depending on the specific circumstances, priorities and challenges facing each region.

C-THE PRINCIPLES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

1- General principles of regional integration

The principles of regional integration are the fundamental ideas that guide and underpin the process of building and consolidating a Community's regional integration. They help to shape the objectives, strategies and results of regional integration initiatives. To this end, seven (7) general principles can be cited in the process of building regional integration:

a) The principles of sovereignty and subsidiarity

Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority or power that a state possesses within its own borders. It is a fundamental principle of international law, recognising that each state has the exclusive right to govern its internal affairs without interference from outside forces. In the context of regional integration, the principle of sovereignty implies that Member States retain independent decision-making and control over certain aspects of governance. Subsidiarity is a principle which states that matters should be dealt with by the smallest, lowest or least centralised competent authority. It recognises that decisions and actions should be taken at the most local and decentralised level possible, while higher levels of authority should only intervene when lower levels are unable to resolve a problem effectively. In the context of regional integration, subsidiarity implies that decisions and functions should be delegated to regional bodies or implemented at regional level only when they cannot be dealt with effectively at national level. The aim of this principle is to ensure that decisions are taken as close as possible to the people affected by them, enabling more efficient and effective governance.

Both principles play an important role in regional integration efforts. Specifically, the principle of subsidiarity ensures regional integration within a regional economic community.

b) The principles of mutual benefit and reciprocity The principles of mutual benefit and reciprocity in regional integration refer to the idea that member countries of a regional integration agreement should strive to ensure fairness and equality in their interactions and cooperation. Mutual benefits emphasise that all participating countries should share in the benefits and opportunities of the integration process. This means that all policies, agreements or initiatives should be designed to promote economic growth, social development and the general welfare of all Member States concerned. Reciprocity, on the other hand, implies that countries should give and receive in equal measure. It suggests that the benefits and advantages obtained through regional integration should be reciprocal and proportionate between member countries. In other words, each participating country should contribute to the integration process in a way that reflects its capacities, interests and needs, and it should receive corresponding benefits in return.

Both principles are crucial within a regional economic community to achieve balanced and sustainable regional integration. They help to ensure that no country is disproportionately disadvantaged or exploited, and that cooperation is based on equity, trust, etc.

c) The principles of non-discrimination and inclusion The principles of non-discrimination and inclusion are essential in regional integration in order to ensure equal opportunities and fair treatment for all Member States. These principles aim to eliminate any form of prejudice, bias or exclusion in the regional integration process. Here are some key aspects of these principles:

• Equal treatment: Non-discrimination promotes the idea that all Member States should be treated equally, with no favouritism or unfair advantage given to certain countries. All states should have an equal voice in decision-making processes, and no state should receive preferential treatment over others.

• Protection of minorities: Inclusion focuses on the protection and representation of minority groups within Member States. This includes marginalised populations based on criteria such as ethnicity, race, religion, gender and socio-economic status. Efforts should be made to ensure their participation and inclusion in regional initiatives. • Respect for diversity: Non-discrimination and inclusion also require respect for the diverse cultures, traditions and languages of the Member States. This means not only recognising and valuing the differences, cultures, beliefs and perspectives of individuals and communities, but also promoting equality, justice and equity within a region. d) The principles of gradualism and flexibility

The principles of gradualism and flexibility in regional integration refer to the approach and capacity for adaptation in the process of establishing and developing regional integration programmes. Gradualism implies that regional integration is a step-by-step process, allowing for gradual and incremental change. It recognises that full integration cannot be achieved overnight and stresses the importance of gradually implementing measures and policies to ensure a smooth transition. This approach allows Member States to adapt and adjust to the integration process at their own pace, taking into account their individual circumstances, capacities and public opinions.

While flexibility in the context of promoting regional integration refers to the ability to respond to and accommodate the diverse needs and priorities of Member States. It recognises that countries have different levels of economic development, political systems and societal structures. Flexibility allows Member States to have different degrees of involvement and participation in specific aspects of regional integration, ensuring that their particular concerns and interests are taken into account.

e) The principles of solidarity and cooperation

The principles of solidarity and cooperation are crucial foundations for successful regional integration. These principles promote the idea that countries in a region should work together in a spirit of mutual support and collaboration to achieve common goals and meet common challenges. Here are some key principles of solidarity and cooperation in regional integration: • Mutual assistance: Countries in a region should support and help each other in times of need, whether economic, social or political. Solidarity implies a willingness to lend a hand and share resources to ensure the well-being and development of all Member States.

• Joint decision-making: Regional integration requires decision-making processes involving all Member States. Countries should strive to reach consensus and make collective decisions that benefit the region as a whole, rather than pursuing individual interests. This ensures that all countries have a voice and that decisions reflect the needs and aspirations of the wider regional community.

• Shared responsibilities: Shared responsibilities for regional integration refer to the collective obligations and commitments that member countries assume when they engage in regional integration efforts. These responsibilities are generally aimed at promoting collective growth, development and stability among member states. Examples of shared responsibilities in regional integration include political cooperation, infrastructure development and regulatory harmonisation. f) Principles of good governance and transparency

The principles of good governance and transparency in regional integration refer to practices and standards that promote effective decision-making, accountability and openness in the process of integrating nations or regions. These principles aim to foster trust, cooperation and shared responsibility among member countries, and to ensure that regional integration efforts are conducted in a fair, inclusive and participatory manner. Key aspects of these principles include: • Rule of law: Maintaining the rule of law is crucial for good governance and transparency in regional integration. This means that all member countries are subject to a clear and enforceable set of rules, regulations and legal frameworks, ensuring equal treatment, fairness and accountability. • Participation and inclusion: In order to promote transparency and inclusion, regional integration efforts should involve the active participation of all relevant stakeholders, including governments, civil society organisations, private sector actors and marginalised communities. This ensures that diverse views and interests are taken into account in decision-making processes and helps to build broad consensus and support. • Public finance management: Transparent and accountable public finance management is a key aspect of good governance in regional integration. This includes effective budgeting, procurement and financial reporting systems, as well as strict controls to prevent corruption and mismanagement.

g) The principles of promoting peace, security and stability These refer to various factors and approaches that aim to foster cooperation and mutual understanding between nations in a specific region. Some of the key principles include:

• Dialogue and diplomacy: Encouraging open and constructive dialogue between member states to resolve conflicts, address grievances and build trust. Diplomatic efforts focus on negotiation, mediation and the peaceful settlement of disputes.

• Non-aggression: Promoting a commitment to non-aggression, which means that Member States refrain from using force or the threat of force against each other. This principle emphasises the importance of resolving disputes by peaceful means.

• Respect for sovereignty: Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each Member State. This principle ensures that states do not interfere in each other's internal affairs or threaten each other's sovereignty, thereby promoting stability within the region.

• Economic cooperation: Encourage economic integration and cooperation to enhance regional stability. This includes promoting trade, investment and the free movement of goods, services and capital within the region. Economic cooperation helps to reduce economic disparities, create opportunities for economic growth and strengthen mutual interdependence between Member States.

• Mutual defence and security: Cooperation in defence and security to deter aggression, prevent conflict and respond collectively to security threats.

This may involve mutual defence agreements, joint military exercises, intelligence sharing and coordination of security measures. • Rule of law and good governance: Promoting respect for the rule of law, respect for human rights and good governance practices within Member States. This guarantees the protection of individual freedoms, respect for democratic principles and government accountability, contributing to stability and conflict prevention.

By ensuring that initiatives are based on shared values, these principles not only serve as a guide for the Member States, institutions and stakeholders involved in defining their respective regional integration processes, but also promote cooperation and contribute to the socio-economic development of the regional economic communities. To this end, these general principles are appropriated by each regional community on the basis of their respective specificities. This observation leads us, in the context of our study, to highlight the specific principles of regional integration in Africa, in the light of its specific features.

2- Guidelines for a regional integration process

The processes of building and promoting regional integration are for the most part aligned with major political initiatives and decisions aimed at accelerating and integrating the various regional communities, the centres of international economic relations. The appropriation of the general principles of regional integration has led the States of each continent to define their process of building and consolidating regional integration around the strengthening of harmonisation and coordination at continental level of sectoral policies in order to build integrated and prosperous Regional Economic Communities. To this end, the strategy adopted as part of the construction and promotion of regional integration has been structured around five specific pillars enabling the progress of integration in the vast majority of continental economic communities to be measured, in accordance with their respective treaties and protocols. These are: market and trade integration; free movement of people; convergence of macroeconomic policies; peace, security, stability and governance; and harmonisation of national sectoral policies.

a-Market and trade integration

The main objective of the pursuit of trade and market integration within the regions is to boost trade and investment between the different countries in the integration zone. Businesses and consumers in the regions will benefit from faster and more profitable trade flows, as they are accompanied by job creation, industrial interdependence, economic diversification and structural transformation which, by extension, helps to promote sustainable development on the different continents70. In 2014, for example, Latin American exports accounted for 18% compared with 54% for Asia and 66% for Europe, while intra-african exports accounted around 16%71. Despite the fact that trade within several regional economic communities is not reaching its full potential, it is important to note that it is much more diversified and increasingly based on manufactured products rather than commodities exported within their integration zones. Boosting market and trade integration in the least developed regions could therefore contribute to greater specialisation, diversification and structural transformation.

To this end, the action plan to stimulate market and trade integration and the negotiations for the implementation or promotion of a continental free trade area are specific measures for the establishment or consolidation of a Regional Economic Community. These measures stimulate trade in goods and services through regional integration agreements aimed at removing tariff and non-tariff barriers. Despite the signing of agreements, protocols and conventions relating to trade and market integration between the Member States in their respective regional economic communities, many factors explain, depending on the region, the slow pace of implementation or consolidation. For most of the less developed regions, the slowness is due to a lack of infrastructure. Difficulties with maintenance and connectivity, as well as conflicts and security issues in the sub-regions, are among the main obstacles to trade. In addition, rail and road systems are often linked to seaports rather than cross-border land infrastructure. Similarly, internal waterways are insufficiently exploited and, in most cases, impassable, complicating trade within these different regions. It is therefore necessary to consider the reorganisation of transport and national infrastructures in order to strengthen the links between the member countries of the various continental economic communities and thus improve the circulation of goods and services within the continental integration zones. In Africa, for example, regional infrastructure development programmes, such as the Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa, are ideal tools for ensuring connectivity on the African continent and, at the same time, the integration of markets and trade. The modernisation and implementation of existing trade agreements within the regional economic communities is therefore imperative for their member countries in order to reap the benefits of increased trade and market integration on their respective continents.

70 African Union Commission, African Development Bank, Economic Commission for Africa, 2016. Africa Regional Integration Index - Report 2016. Available at http://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/document/africa-regional-integration-index-report- 2016-87415/.

71 Report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNCTADstat, 2016.

b-Convergence of macroeconomic policies

Countries in several less-developed integration areas, such as Latin America and Asia, continue to apply divergent macroeconomic policies that prevent closer integration and encourage smuggling, particularly along borders. According to the World Bank Group, progress in controlling inflation, harmonising the orientation of fiscal policies and reducing the share of indirect taxation in GDP has fallen short of expectations.

The convergence of macroeconomic policies and financial and monetary integration play an important role in efficiency, the promotion of public responsibility and, therefore, the promotion of socio-economic development. The definition of the objectives of macroeconomic policy convergence and the commitment of the member countries of the continental economic communities in this area should lead to a reduction in economic fluctuations, and thus to greater macroeconomic stability in their economic integration zones. This objective is achieved when a point of equilibrium is reached between the main macroeconomic variables, with an increase in gross domestic product accompanied by low inflation, a reduction in the budget deficit and a relatively balanced current account. Effective convergence of macroeconomic policies guarantees the success of cross-border financial and monetary integration and stimulates international trade. However, the benefits of financial and monetary integration depend on the extent of cross-border trade and the realisation of business opportunities on the continent. The support of Member States is therefore crucial in achieving the convergence objectives in order to foster regional integration and the socio-economic development of the continent. In this respect, the coordination of the approved convergence programmes falls within the remit of the continental and sub-regional levels. In Africa, this coordination is led at continental level by the African Union and at subregional level by the regional economic communities72.

72 Economic Commission for Africa, 2011. 'Addressing the challenges of macro-economic policy convergence in the SADC region'. Available at:

In practice, monetary integration is taking place in certain areas of continental integration, such as Latin America, in a process marked by various customs and monetary union initiatives, such as the Argentinian-Brazilian union, planned for the near future and already considered to be the 2nd customs and monetary union after the European Union.

In the context of deeper continental integration, the changes in the economic environment brought about by initiatives to stimulate intra-continental trade and, more recently, by the establishment of continental free trade areas, have rekindled the determination to consolidate the convergence of macroeconomic policies, particularly in terms of financial and monetary integration. Member states of continental integration zones should therefore be more committed to meeting the objectives of their respective convergence programmes and monetary systems.

c-Free movement of people

The limited mobility of factors of production, particularly labour, across national borders is a significant constraint on the establishment or consolidation of a regional integration process.

In fact, the free movement of people within regional economic communities is an essential element in the various regional integration programmes of member countries, mainly because of the potential commercial advantages it brings. The free movement of people is a powerful tool for boosting socio-economic development and skills, thanks to the ease with which people can travel for the purposes of trade, tourism or education. A country that opens its borders or whose nation is on the move has everything to gain73. The precondition for cross-border http://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/addressing-the-challenges-of-macro-economic-policy-convergence-in-the-sadc-region.pdf investment is sufficient liberalisation of the movement of people within Member States. Moreover, "the free movement of persons and the rights of residence and establishment" are increasingly part of the processes of promoting and consolidating integration. This is why the United Nations' Continental Economic Commissions increasingly recommend obtaining a visa on arrival, in the absence of the total lifting of restrictions on the free movement of people within their regional integration zone. However, the effective free movement of factors of production remains conditional on the improvement of transport infrastructure and services on certain continents in order to facilitate the process and further stimulate cross-border mobility for the socio-economic development of the continental integration zone74.

73 African Union Commission, African Development Bank, Economic Commission for Africa, 2016. Africa Regional Integration Index - Report 2016. Available at:

d-Peace, security, stability and governance

In most continents, countries in the aftermath of the Second World War were characterised by low gross domestic product and intra-or inter-state conflicts. The challenges and threats to the peace, security, stability and governance of the member countries of a single continental area are a multifaceted reality. On the other hand, regional integration and cooperation have always contributed to reducing armed and unarmed conflicts and maintaining regional stability in many parts of the world. To address these multiple continental conflicts, which affect the preservation of international peace and security and the promotion of socio-economic development, member countries have signed a series of international agreements within their respective continental integration areas. http://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/document/africa-regional-integration-index-report- 2016-87415/ The Member States of the European Coal and Steel Community, for example, have made a point of pooling the management of their coal and steel industries through international agreements such as the Treaty of Paris of 18 April 1951, so that none of them can manufacture weapons of war alone to attack the others, as was the case in the past75.

74 African Union Commission, African Development Bank, Economic Commission for Africa, 2016. Africa Regional Integration Index - Report 2016. Available at: http://www.afdb.org/fr/documents/document/africa-regional-integration-index-report- 2016-87415/

The promotion of peace, security, stability and good governance and the peaceful settlement of disputes between Member States in a continental integration area such as Europe, these issues have played a key role in the ECSC's various activities since the early 1950s76. In the process of building European regional integration, the Council of Europe was a concrete illustration of a decision-making body working to promote democracy, human rights, the rule of law and conflict management on the continent. However, the responsibility for promoting peace, security and stability in Europe fell first to the countries that signed the Treaties of Paris in 1951 and later the Treaty of Rome in 1957, and then to the new institutions that were being created. Within the framework of the implementation of the European regional integration process for the member countries, the aim was to guarantee both multilateral compliance with the above-mentioned treaties and the multiplication of actions to strengthen socio-economic development as well as peace and international security on the European continent.

75https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/history-eu/1945- 59_fr#:~:text=25%20mars%201957%20%20Traités%20de%20Rome&text=Ils%20formalisent %20cette%20coopération%20par,le%201er%20janvier%201958Accessed on 9/08/2023.

76 Protocole relatif à la création du Conseil de Paix et Sécurité de l’union Africaine, 2002. Available at : http://www.peaceau.org/fr/article/protocole-relatif-a-la-creation-du-conseil-de-paix-et-de-securite-de-l-union-africaine.

e-Harmonisation of national sectoral policies

Harmonisation of policies produces a common leverage effect, making the rules of the game for stakeholders clear and predictable. Common policies and broader cooperation enable economies to take full advantage of regional integration and achieve socio-economic development. Consequently, it is a fundamental objective of the various programmes for implementing and consolidating regional integration processes. To this end, most of the world's continental integration processes focus the harmonisation of their sectoral policies on the areas of transport and communications, industry, food and agriculture, energy and water resources, among others.

• Transport and communications

Transport on the least developed continents is the most expensive in the world. The benefits of integration risk being limited or even undermined by the fragmentation of transport networks. Convergence of transport programmes and interventions has yet to be achieved across the member countries of the respective integration areas, despite the fact that most of these member countries share the same objectives, i.e. strengthening their physical links, harmonising policies and practices, simplifying standards, regulations and procedures to facilitate cross-border transport, and mobilising investment for the development, rehabilitation and improvement of infrastructure. Persistent transport problems in the least developed continents increase the cost of doing business, hamper factor mobility and undermine investment and competitiveness. For landlocked countries, transport costs can sometimes be as high as 77% of the value of exports. In addition to improving transport infrastructure and strengthening connectivity between countries in the same continental economic communities, initiatives have also been taken to set up and/or consolidate regional integration processes on the various continents, in order to facilitate transit and simplify documentation and procedures along the main transport corridors. A series of initiatives supported by conflicting communication systems.

However, it should be noted that major efforts to strengthen regional integration in the field of communications have focused in most processes, as in Europe, on policy convergence, physical facilities, connectivity and exchange programmes, particularly in the field of broadcasting. The aim is to stimulate growth in trade and finance and reduce the costs of production and services by facilitating access to low-cost information and linking the different regions of the continent to each other and to the rest of the world. As part of efforts to strengthen telecommunications, emphasis has also been placed on the convergence of national policies and interventions to strengthen connectivity and improve the quality of services through substantial infrastructure funding and encouraging private sector participation. - Industry

Strengthening industrial cooperation across the continent has been identified as a priority in several processes for building and consolidating regional integration, as industrial production, productivity and added value have remained insufficient due to the weakness of inter-and intra-sectoral links and the similarity of product ranges in their member countries. Added to this is the absence of modern technology and the obsolescence of industrial equipment in several regions of the world. The lack of business pressure for regional integration may also explain the low level of industrial cooperation between countries. All the regional economic communities have taken "timid" measures to stimulate the growth of industry, in particular by supporting trade between industries through trade liberalisation plans. This is why, faced with certain problems, such as the low level of trade in intermediate and finished products within the regional economic communities, industrial polarisation, lack of diversification and low competitiveness, some regional communities have opted to strengthen the participation of the private sector.

The aim of implementing regional integration processes is, on the one hand, for member countries to pool their efforts more effectively in order to implement policies that encourage direct investment, whether foreign or domestic, in order to strengthen industrial cooperation. On the other hand, member countries in each continental integration zone should harmonise their investment and tax policies and provide special incentives for businesses to encourage intra-Community trade. In the same vein, the long-term aim of these various initiatives is not only to review and harmonise labour legislation, patents and industrial property rights, but above all to facilitate the construction of regional integration processes on each continent.

• Food and agriculture

Given that the vast majority of people living in underdeveloped continents rely on agriculture for their livelihood and trade, this sector is the focus of particular attention from the regional economic communities. To promote the development of agriculture and improve food security and self-sufficiency, these communities are working to harmonise their agri-food policies and strategies as part of the construction and consolidation of their respective regional integration processes, rationalising production and boosting trade in agricultural products between Member States in the same integration zone, setting up joint early warning systems to combat pests, diseases and extreme weather conditions, creating efficient regional markets for agricultural products, and setting up joint institutions for research and capacity building, among other things. As in the case of industry, only a few regional economic communities have succeeded in increasing the production or productivity of their agricultural activities as part of their regional integration process. Low productivity and small domestic markets have a negative impact on the living conditions of farmers and consumers alike. It is for this reason that the regional economic communities have turned to pooling the efforts of their member states in order to develop policies and programmes aimed at increasing their agricultural production and ensuring their respective food security. Alongside this initiative, these integration zones have opted to redouble their efforts in their integration processes to strengthen extension services, research, education and seed distribution; through the harmonisation of national support systems within them. With regard to support mechanisms for the marketing of agricultural products, inputs and credit, the aim of the economic communities is to contribute, in synergy with their member countries, to the elimination of dysfunctions in production and marketing, and to enable countries to fully exploit their comparative advantages within the economic community to which they belong. It is important to note, however, that the various communities are also keen to go beyond their various sectoral harmonisation initiatives and focus on strengthening cooperation and integration to tackle the problems of their member states. This emphasis on inter-state cooperation is reflected, among other things, at the level of the regional economic communities by measures such as: • Integrating national agricultural markets into a large regional market by improving infrastructure, eliminating non-tariff barriers to trade such as roadblocks and checkpoints, creating new markets and strengthening marketing links and exchanges of information on food safety; • Improving data collection to facilitate decision-making; • Strengthening information networks on agriculture and food security, in particular by using geographic information systems; • Improving the reliability of food security early warning systems and extending them to all regional economic communities.

• Energy

Energy production on the various continents remains limited and distribution uneven within several continental economic communities, particularly on the less developed continents. Voltage losses, sometimes leading to power cuts, have characterised the member countries of several continental economic communities. As energy is vital to international commercial competitiveness and to the construction and consolidation of regional integration processes, the institutions responsible for coordinating these processes at continental level have for the most part focused on harmonising energy policies in order to provide a regional response to the problem of shortages in their member states. This is why regional integration and cooperation represent an opportunity for the regional economic communities to help solve the problem of the continent's electricity supply. Countries are aware of this and are increasingly considering, albeit not systematically, adopting a regional approach to tackling these energy problems. In addition to launching the various regional electricity networks, most communities have taken into account the need to promote investment and harmonisation of regulatory frameworks between their various members. Intra-community trade in energy has been identified as an opportunity to reduce their various energy deficits. As a result, a number of countries have turned to producing and exporting their electricity within their integration zone in order to reduce energy costs and enhance energy security on their respective continents. To this end, a series of measures have been adopted on several continents to exploit and develop the hydroelectric potential of river basins and integrate networks and gas pipelines to facilitate cross-border energy flows. These measures also aim to define energy development policies, strategies and plans in line with regional and sub-regional development priorities. The idea of a continental approach to energy development has, as part of the integration process, gained ground because the member countries of several continental economic communities have noted their overall capacity to produce energy cheaply and reliably through major regional supply systems. - Common water resources

The harmonisation of sectoral policies also includes the management of shared water resources. Shared water resources within member countries in particular, and on a continental scale in general, have always been poorly exploited. In most continents, especially the less developed ones, there is no integrated approach to water resource management, as many river basin authorities operate independently of the organisations responsible for promoting integration. The sector is also characterised by a lack of binding protocols, strategic regional action plans, and regional and sub-regional centres of excellence for human resource development and research and development.

This is why the various economic communities at continental level have opted, as part of the construction and consolidation of their respective integration processes, for a number of pooled actions aimed not only at improving the management system for shared water resources, from the financing of river basin organisations to water distribution, via research and development and the acquisition of appropriate equipment. But also to liberalise the management sector so that private companies participate significantly in the sector's activities through the financing of water management projects.

The series of measures to address the problems of managing shared water resources across the continents and promoting regional integration also includes strengthening the institutional architecture and cooperation between the respective Member States on issues such as hydroelectric power generation and transmission, navigation, flood forecasting and control, and the creation of water quality control laboratories. Beyond this, the respective economic communities on a continental scale have articulated their initiatives for better exploitation of water around the establishment of common protocols relating to river and lake basins and the management of water resources in areas where their member countries overlap.

II-THEORETICAL STAGES IN THE REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS

A-THE REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS

More than a simple definition, the concept of regional integration has emerged because of a progressive and dynamic process of events and degrees of cooperation based on economic, political and cultural levels. It is considered a process because a regional integration (RI) initiative must emerge. This initiative is often initiated by a political or geopolitical cooperation approach. Conditions such as geographical proximity between nations, cultural relations, historical differences between the players, trade and exchange relations, etc. are all factors that can encourage this process.

Once such an initiative is envisaged and implemented, a Regional Integration Agreement (RIA) can be expected to be put in place, meaning that the players must now formally affirm their intentions in law.

There are three traditionally recognised types of RIA. The first is the Free Trade Area or Free Trade Agreement (FTA). An FTA involves the removal of tariffs applied to trade in commercial products between states or nations that are signatories to the agreement, allowing them to continue to apply their tariff policy to foreign trade with countries that are not members of the agreement. Secondly, there is the possibility of creating a Customs Union (CU). A CU is characterised by the application of FTA rules plus the introduction of a Common External Tariff (CET). This latter instrument is applied to non-member countries. The third option is the Common Market (CM). This allows the free movement of production factors, products and services between member countries. To date, there are around forty nine (49) RIAs in the world, comprising a wide variety of rules and features even more extensive than those covered by these traditional structures.

A RIA is a document comprising thousands of pages of text, accompanied by administrative, political and judicial support. In addition, it should be noted that a geographically discriminatory commercial policy is a definitive feature of any RIA.

Subsequently, once a RIA has been implemented, as in the case of the EU and CUSMA, we begin to experience the phenomenon of regional integration (RI), i.e. RI is the expected result of the move towards the liberalisation of regional trade and the establishment of the RIA. More than a concept, RI therefore becomes a complex process that takes time to produce results77. One measure of a region's degree of integration is the number of Regional Economic Communities. Furthermore, within these organisations, countries may be more or less integrated depending on the different integration mechanisms put in place within the Regional Community78. The EU and CUSMA, as examples of representative communities, together constitute the ⅔ of world trade. Indeed, it can be seen that these results were achieved following a series of measures aimed at liberalising their regional trade substantially in relation to their external trade. The result of these initiatives in these two Regional Economic Communities is that 40% of world trade is directly affected by regional integration agreements79 To this end, RIA becomes, among other things, a key factor, even an indispensable basis, for promoting regional integration and, consequently, socio-economic development. Its benefits are therefore numerous, because the zone is supposed to be a source of economic growth due to the free trade it establishes. In addition, the RIA offers beneficial conditions for consumers, such as the stimulation of competition and innovation, which tend to bring prices down. This vast market also allows for economies of scale.

77 Grossman. G M, Rogoff. K, Handbook of International Economics, Princeton University Press, 1995, chapter 31, p. 239, 1st edition, Volume 3, Number 3.

78 Information provided by the SES Interactive Resource Bank, www.brises.org. Keyword: "regional economic integration".

However, contrary to what is said about globalisation, the multiplication of RIAs, and consequently of areas of integration, poses an obstacle to its fundamental principle of multilateralism through the application of the most favoured nation clause80, i.e. while RIAs practise free trade within the zone, they protect themselves from the outside by customs barriers and CET. Negotiations to lower customs duties therefore become difficult because of the blocs formed by the different regional communities81. However, it is important to note in this case that there is also a request in accordance with Article 24 of the GATT, which requires that external tariffs cannot be entirely higher or more restrictive than before the CU82.

79 Ibid

80 For the WTO, definition and objective of the «most favoured nation» (MFN): • The most-favoured-nation treatment, known as the NPF clause, is an application of the principle of non-discrimination. It is on the latter that the Multilateral Trade System (SMC ) is based; • The MFN clause is defined by Article 1 of the GATT 1994, as the commitment by a WTO Member to immediately and unconditionally benefit all other WTO members from the benefits it would grant to all other countries; • The objective of the MFN clause is to avoid discrimination between trading partners and therefore to extend each trade advantage to other WTO members and in this way contribute to a generalised removal of trade barriers.

81 Information provided by the SES Interactive Resource Bank, www.brises.org, keyword "regional economic integration."

B-THE STAGES OF THE REGIONAL INTEGRATION PROCESS

Mention of Regional Integration (RI), taking into account the various contingencies, leads us to define this notion over time as a continuous process of strengthening cooperation between states that are members of the same regional economic community. To this end, there is a broad consensus in the economic literature on the stages in the process of classification structures for these degrees of RI, either the eight (8) degree model or the Bela Balassa stages, which are the best known and most widely used. In our analysis, we will give the characteristics of an RI structure with a process of eight general degrees as well as the best-known process of Bela Balassa83. He distinguishes, in ascending order of depth, the free trade area, the customs union, the common market, the economic union and full economic integration), structured in 5 stages and which we will highlight in the demonstrations of our developments.

1- The Economic Cooperation Forum

Organisations such as the OECD, the Bretton Woods institutions and the ADB are examples of supranational international institutions that enable economic cooperation forums to exist. These organisations provide governments with a framework within which to examine, develop and affirm economic and social policies. They were initially created by political initiatives. In fact, the OECD became what was previously the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). This was created to manage the funds earmarked for the reconstruction of Europe in the aftermath of the Second World War through the administration of aid from the United States and Canada under the Marshall Plan84.

82 Grossman. G M, Rogoff. K, Handbook of International Economics, Princeton University Press, 1995, chapter 31, p. 239, 1st edition, Volume 3, Number 3.

83 Bela Balassa (1928-1991) was a Hungarian economist, born in 1928 in Budapest and died in Washington in 1991. He graduated in law from the University of Budapest and in economics from Yale University. He taught at Johns Hopkins University and was an advisor to the World Bank. In particular, he drew up a typology of the stages of regional economic integration in Ihe theory of economic integration, 1962.

The role played by the OECD was crucial to the success of the very difficult beginning of the European IR process, with the roles of the ECSC, the EEC and the EAEC. As a result, the interaction between these organisations and the Heads of State of the Six created a forum for economic cooperation specific to the needs of the construction of the European RI.

In the case of CUSMA, the Economic Cooperation Forum was created mainly by political initiatives and the private business sector at first. Initially, it was an agreement between the US and Canadian automotive industries. This agreement prompted the creation of the Canada-US Trade Agreement Secretariat (CUSTA), which evolved to include a Mexican counterpart in the CUSMA Secretariat.

Since 2012, the OECD has also been involved in consolidating an African economic forum, in close collaboration with African regional institutions such as the African Union, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the African Development Bank, among others. Since then, the aim has been to support Africa's transformation, which is taking place in an increasingly uncertain global context. Demographic growth is accelerating urban transitions, while increasing the need for massive creation of quality jobs. The aim is to support the regional integration process and guarantee the socio-economic development of the African region through the creation of economic opportunities for African youth and the promotion of investment, among other things.

84 Information provided on the website of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, www.ocde.org, historical information on the organisation.

2- Preferential Trade Area

This level is characterised by an agreement between countries whereby the latter undertake to give preferential treatment to products originating in the signatory states over products from non-member countries. Such an area can have three distinctions: an exclusively customs preferential trade area, in which concessions are applied exclusively to customs duties on imports and exports. A customs preferential area, where not only customs restrictions but also other customs factors such as direct and indirect restrictions on imports and exports are limited. Finally, an economic preferential area, which includes aspects that are no longer of a customs nature but which discriminate against products from non-member countries once they have been imported into the territory covered by the agreement. To this end, it is essential to point out that this degree of regional integration is considered to be very superficial and yet it is often ignored. However, it has been deemed capable of being validated as the first step in more significant regional integration processes.

3- Free Trade Area

This level of regional integration is defined by an agreement between the signatory countries to completely abolish their customs duties, tariffs and other barriers and quantitative restrictions on reciprocal trade in products, while each retaining its autonomy and independence with regard to trade with non-FTA countries. To this end, to achieve such a free trade agreement, deadlines, conditions and customs elimination mechanisms are defined and put in place respectively by the countries signing the agreement. In this case, the elimination target is set for customs measures between the parties involved to increase reciprocal trade flows. To avoid control problems on imports from outside the FTA, Member States implement instruments to establish the origin of products. In this way, it becomes possible to identify the products that are generated within the FTA and avoid the entry of foreign products through the Member State that applies more advantageous customs duties to non-member countries. The CUSMA rules are an example of such a system. It is precisely CUSMA that has stood out for this degree of regional integration since 1 January 1994. The EU, on the other hand, had already gone beyond this stage of regional integration during the period between 25 March 1957, with the signing of the Treaty of Rome by the members of the Europe of Six and the entry into force of its CU on 1 July 1968.

4- Customs Union

A Customs Union (CU) is characterised by a process initiated initially by the signatory countries at the time of its creation in order to free up trade flows, among other things. In addition to freeing up trade flows by completely eliminating all aspects of the free trade agreement, the Customs Union adopts a Common External Tariff (CET). To achieve an optimal Customs Union through the Common External Tariff, a set of conditions must be met. These include the following conditions:

• The total elimination of tariffs between Member States; • The establishment of a uniform tariff on imports from outside the Union; • The redistribution of customs revenues between members in accordance with an agreed formula.

To this end, integration zones such as CUSMA, the EU and the AU, among others, do not constitute CUs, although some communities are keen to become one and others are not. In the specific case of an integration zone such as CUSMA and the AU, there are no plans to become Customs Unions. In fact, as the process towards CU is very complex, one of the most significant barriers to its application may be the disparity in the level of socio-economic development that exists between the Member States of the same integration zone. In the case of CUSMA, Canada and the US are considered developed countries, while Mexico is considered a developing country. In fact, you only need to compare the GDP per capita figures for each country to see the development gap between the three countries: Canada USD 27,840; USA USD 34,142; and Mexico USD 9,02385. In the case of the EU, the DU constituted a common protection mechanism, ensuring free trade itself and through the application of the CET; the maintenance of certain guarantees, such as consumer protection, among others. This stage of regional integration also enabled the EU to establish the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 1962. Its aim is to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural community, stabilise markets, guarantee security of supply and ensure reasonable prices for consumers. To date, the CAP represents an unprecedented initiative. However, it has been the subject of many lengthy negotiations between EU member states.

5- Common Market

The establishment of a common market represents a step forward in the process of building regional integration. In fact, the common market marks a stage in the integration process, because elements such as the free movement of people, services and capital without discrimination, among others, are now linked to its construction. In concrete terms, in the CM, internal customs and tariffs no longer exist; a common commercial policy is implemented on the basis of fundamental freedoms. Consequently, the legislation of the Member States must be unified in order to ensure free and fair competition within the CM. In the case of the continental integration zones of Asia, Africa, America and Europe, among others, only the European integration zone, in this case the EU, has opted to move towards the CM. In its specific case, this was the Single European Act, which came into force on 1 July 1987 and provided for the construction of the single market on 1 January 1993.

85 Cordellier. S, Didiot. B, L’état du monde 2006, annuaire économique géopolitique mondial, La Découverte, 2002, p. 362.

6- Economic Union

This level of regional integration includes all the stages or degrees mentioned above, especially the Common Market. However, all of these levels of integration face the challenge of achieving total harmonisation of national economic policies. These include financial, fiscal, industrial and agricultural policies, among others, with the aim of definitively eliminating any discrimination that may exist within the various national sectoral policies.

7- Economic and Monetary Union

Economic Union can be seen as the essential complement to the possibility of establishing monetary integration. In the end, therefore, the two form a common approach, albeit one that is divided by difficulties, particularly of a temporal nature, in implementing monetary integration. To this end, the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) has been implemented in its entirety through the application of the last two structural phases, in particular the implementation from 1 January 1994 of greater coordination of economic policies, in order to reduce interest rates, exchange rate fluctuations and limit the deficits and public debts of the Member States, and finally the establishment of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the creation of the single currency on 1 January 199986.

8- Social and political union

In this analysis, these two degrees are considered together for practical reasons. Indeed, these two levels are considered to be the culminating stages of any regional integration process. In practical terms, these two levels represent a significant step forward in the process of regional integration, beyond all the other stages of the process, and also tend towards the ideal of voluntary unification of the cultures of the different peoples of the same Regional Economic Community. Having completed this general presentation of the general stages in the process of building regional integration, we need to complete our analysis by presenting the theoretical stages in the deepening of regional integration according to Bela Balassa.

Bela Balassa (1962) distinguishes five (5) stages in the deepening of regional economic integration, which he ranks in order of increasing intensity. Each degree is made up of the previous degree plus a new element. To this end, the table below summarises the theoretical stages in the deepening of regional economic integration, according to B. BALASSA. BALASSA.

86 Farvaque. E et Lagadec. G, Intégration économique européenne : Problèmes et analyses, Reflets et perspectives de la vie économique, N°42, 2002, p. 52

Table 2: The five (5) stages in Bela Belassa's classification of the regional integration process

Measures

Stages